GUIDANCE AND COUNSELLING

The word guidance is explained in different ways by various/many
writers, but all, having the same meaning. Shartzer and Stone (1976)
defined guidance to mean “to direct, pilot or guide. Bakare (1996)
refers to guidance as a more directive or prescriptive form of assistance.
Idowu (1998) sees it as a family name for all the helping service within
the general educational and community systems. To make the meaning
to be more explicit, Akinade (2002) remarked that some specialists
assert that guidance is a broad term used to cover a number of specialist
services available in schools. Such services include the information
service, testing service, placement service, follow-up service and
counseling service. But looking at the modern day global world, the
provision of specialist services are no more limited to the school, it now
includes the community in general.
From the above, guidance can be summarily defined as a cognitive
educational services (within or outside the school system) that help
people understand themselves, provided the client reveals accurate,
reliable and valid information about himself and his environment.
3.1.2 The Meaning of Counselling
Counselling is a process of helping individuals or group of people to
gain self-understanding in order to be themselves. Burker and Steffler
(1979) see counseling as a professional relationship between a trained
Counselor and a client. Olayinka (1972) defined it to be a process
whereby a person is helped in a face-to-face relationship while Makinde
(1983) explained counseling as an enlightened process whereby people
help others by encouraging their growth. Counselling is a process
designed to help clients understand and clarify personal views of their
life space, and to learn to reach their self-determined goals through

meaningful, well-informed choices and a resolution of problems of an
emotional or interpersonal nature. It believes that every human
individual has the potential for self-growth, self-development and selfactualization.
3.2 Types of Counselling
There are two major types of Counselling, namely: individual
counselling and group counselling.
(a) Individual Counselling: This is referred to as one-to-one
counselling. It occurs between the professionally trained
Counsellor (Therapist) and his client (Counsellee). The goal of
this is to help the client to understand himself, clarify and direct
his thought, in order to make a worthwhile decision. Through
this, clients’ problems are alleviated. Frumboltz and Thoreson
(1967) as cited in Ojo (2005) remarked that it is mainly to bring
about change in the client either by altering maladaptive
behaviour, learning the decision making process or preventing
problems.
(b) Group Counselling: This is a counselling session that takes place
between the professionally trained counsellor and a group of
people. Number of this group should not be more than seven, or
at least ten, in order to have a cohesive group and an effective
well controlled counselling session. Members of the groups are
clients/counselees whose tasks or problems that are meant for
resolution are similar.
During group counselling, a free atmosphere is allowed and freedom of
speech is encouraged. The counselees are free to express themselves
individually as counselling progresses so that encumbrances
surrounding the tasks or problems to be resolved would be open for all
to consider and benefit from. All counselees are expected to participate
and express their feelings. The responsibility of the counsellor during
group counselling is to help remove the marks covering the problem.
He helps open up the problem with the professional competence and
knowledge he possesses. The counsellor is not just a member of the
group; he is to direct the affairs and situations.
3.3 Classification of Counselling
Counselling can be classified according to different spheres of life in
which human beings could encounter problems. These are:

(a) Educational Counselling: problems that could be of learning,
teaching and that of education generally are handled here.
(b) Marital Counselling: problems that could emanate from married
life beginning from spouse selection are resolved here.
(c) Personal Social Counselling: problems including personality and
life in general are taken care of here.
(d) Rehabilitation Counselling: problems emanating from life
disruptions such as accidents, retrenchment and natural mishaps
are handled here.
(e) Vocational Counselling: problems from work and training, career
choice making and adjustment are handled here.
Only three of the above types of counselling will be mainly practiced in
the school setting. These are Educational, Vocational and Personalsocial
counselling which will be the full responsibility of the school
counsellor. However, a counsellor in private practice might need to
engage in the other types of counselling depending on the needs of his
clients.
SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
What are the classifications of counseling?
ANSWERS TO SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
Counseling can be classified into the following;
Educational counseling, Marital counseling, personal-social counseling,
Rehabilitation counseling and vocational counseling.
3.4 Approaches to Counselling
There are many approaches to Counselling, but these approaches can be
grouped under the following three headings:
(a)
4
Indirect Approach: The indirect approach to counselling is also
regarded as the client-centred approach. In this approach, the
counselee is allowed to express self while the counsellor only
listen with rapt attention and intermittently, when necessary,
injects words that can elicit more responses on the case at hand
from the counselee. The professional counsellors that use this

approach rely on the tenets of the client-centred theory as their
major counselling skill.
(b) Direct Approach: This is just the opposite of the indirect or
client-centred approach. In this counselling approach, the talking
is done by the counsellor who uses questions and various
counselling skills to elicit responses from the counselee about the
problems at hand. Here, the counsellor dictates the pace and
directs the counselee based on what can be made out of the
sparing responses gathered from the counselee.
(c) Eclectic Approach: This approach to counseling does not rely
totally on either the indirect or direct approach. Rather it finds the
two approaches named above with any other suitable one handy
during counseling sessions. It thereby relies on chosen skills that
suit the counseling session at hand, from all the available
approaches, to resolve the counsellee’s problems.
3.5 Differences between Guidance and Counselling
Writers in most cases find it difficult to distinguish between the two
words. According to Shertzer and stone(1976), the attempt to
differentiate between guidance and counseling has not met with any
measure of success because it is difficult to make distinctions between
the two terms. On the basis of similarities, the terms could be interpreted
to mean the same thing because in terms of peoples’ welfare the two
words are out to achieve the same goals. Although they are both
educational services but contextually, they can be differentiated. The
table below shows some differences between the two terms.

Table 1:

Comparison between Guidance and Counselling
S/N COUNSELLING GUIDANCE
1. Student (client) directed. Counsellor directed. Locus of
Locus of control moves
toward student (client).
This
means the client is more
involved at every stage in
counselling.
2. The Tutor (Counsellor) is a
facilitator /enabler. He is not
the decision maker.
control remains with the Tutor
(Counsellor).
The Tutor (Counsellor) is
information/advice giver.
3. Client and Counsellor jointly Counsellor determines
negotiate a contract about
agenda and methodology.
4. Client participates in assessing
objectives and methods.
Assessment/diagnosis and
needs and evaluating progress. evaluation is in the domain of
the counsellor.
5. Concern is with the process of Concern is with decision
decision-making.
Understanding how decision is
(decision seen as product).
The way it is reached is not
reached is as important as the
content of the decision.
regarded
significant.
as especially
6. Learning is seen as Learning is seen as specific to
transferable. What is learnt in
one context is seen utilizable
in another e.g. the learning of
a skill such as breaking down
problem into its component
parts.
7. Learning is seen as an
emotional as well as a
cognitive process. This means
the behaviour and the thinking
are important.
8. Learning about a subject is
seen as involving a process of
learning about self.
Adapted from Kolo 1992:5
the problem in question.
Feelings are not regarded as
important in learning.
Learning about a subject is not
seen as involving self
discovery.
3.6 Purposes of Guidance and Counselling
The guidance and counselling purposes include: assisting individual
students, teachers, adults and the society in general to:
find out and make individuals aware of their basic personal
prerequisites, abilities, assets, liabilities and potentialities,
provide usable information on vocation and to correct or clarify
misinformation,
assess an individual’s chances to succeed in the labour market,
create awareness of clients in the availability of jobs and how to
progress in it,
make available opportunities for further training and
advancement in occupations,
suggest alternative careers and realisation of priorities
summarized the objectives in Nigerian schools thus,
assist students in making appropriate and satisfying personal,
vocational and educational choices;
assist student acquire a positive image of self through selfunderstanding
the needs and problems of each person,
assist teachers and school personnel in understanding the needs
and problems of each student,
10. assist school authorities / administrators in improving educational
objectives and programmes of interpersonal relationships;
11. contribute to educational planning;
12. mobilize all the available resources of the school or home for
satisfaction of the vocational, educational and socio-personal
needs of the students;
13. supplement school instructional and administrative input into the
learner;
14. help students develop proper attitude towards themselves, others,
school, values, interests, morals, beliefs and discipline;
15. help students develop to optimize and utilize their skills and
correct the sources of their weaknesses and to improve the
standard of education;
16. help learners live within the framework of an institution
17. help people achieve independence with a minimum of conflict
with institutional values;
18. promote in pupils good sense of awareness, ability to acquire a
good knowledge of the world of work, possibility of continuing
education and ability to make realistic decisions;
19. guard individual’s mental health; and
20. promote human effectiveness.
4.0 CONCLUSION
This unit acquainted you with what Guidance and Counselling is all
about. This will, no doubt, help lay the necessary foundation as you
work through the course for better understanding of the subject matter.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, you have been introduced to the meaning of guidance and
counselling, its purposes or objectives. The differences between the two
were also established
6.0 TUTOR MARKED ASSIGNMENT
1. What are the different types of Counselling? Describe each of
them briefly.
7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS
Akinade, E. A., Sokan, B. O., Oseremen N. (1986). Introduction to
Guidance and Counselling: A Basic Text for Colleges and
Universities. Ibadan: Caltep.
Idowu, A. I. (Ed) (1998). Guidance and Counselling in Education.
Ilorin: Indemac.
Kolo, F. D. (1992). Guidance and Counselling in Perspective Zaria:
Sleveno Printing.
Makinde, O. (1983). Fundamental of Guidance and Counselling.
London: Macmillan.

Ojo, O.D. (2005). A Guide to Guidance and Counselling Practicum.
Concept Publications. Shamble, Lagos.
Okon, S. E. (1984). Guidance for the 6-3-3-4 System of Education.
Zaria; Institute of Education.
Olayinka, M. S. (1972). The Role of Guidance and Vocational
Counselling in Nigerian Education. University of Lagos.

UNIT 2 PRINCIPLES
COUNSELLING
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
OF GUIDANCE AND
3.1 Basic Principles of Guidance and Counseling
3.2 Need for Guidance and Counseling
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Readings
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In this unit, you will learn about the principles that guide the practice of
guidance and counseling in the school setting and also, the reasons why
it is required in the school. The knowledge from this unit will help
justify the reasons for introducing this important service in Nigerian
Schools.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

Discuss the basic principles that guide the practice of guidance
and Counseling.
Enumerate the reasons for the need for guidance and counseling
in the school setting.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Basic Principles of Guidance and Counseling
The basic principles of guidance and counseling as accepted by most
authorities in the field of guidance and counseling are described as
follows:
(1) Guidance and Counseling is for everyone. The service is not
only for those with special handicaps but it is also meant for all
“normal”, developing children and adults;
(2) Guidance and Counseling activities should therefore be based on
the need and total development of every person. It is the duty of
all personnel in a setting to identify the needs of individuals so
that programme activities can be designed to meet such needs;
(3) Guidance and Counseling must be provided in a way that ensures
human dignity and worth. The full and adequate development of
the individual must be given preference. It should be seen as
encouraging individuals to attain maximum satisfaction, to
realize their potentials and to be aware to self. No one who has
gone through counseling should feel inadequate;
(4) Guidance and Counseling is a sequential, continuous and
developmental process, which starts from birth to death. This
means that guidance and counseling runs from the nursery school
through primary, secondary to the tertiary institutions. It is not a
once-and-for-all event but a process which is an integral part of
the total educational programme throughout the school life of an
individual;
(5) There is a close relationship between counseling activities and the
instructional process, each contributing to the other. Counseling
can help make the instructional activities to be more relevant and
meaningful to the needs of students, while the instructional
activities can help to give necessary information and directives to
a student in planning his/her life goals;
(6) All guidance activities must emphasize the will for each student
to learn more about himself in an accurate and systematic
manner. Through the use of well-planned instructional strategies
and appraisal techniques, individuals can become more
knowledgeable about themselves and about the world around
them. Without such knowledge, an individual cannot exercise
intelligently the rights to free choice in educational, vocational
and personal-social fields.
(7) Every member of staff in a school and non-school setting should
assume responsibility for guidance activities. The principal,
teachers and counselors are all members of the guidance team
and each member has prescribed functions and roles.
(8) Effective leadership is the watchword for any effective guidance
and counseling programme. Guidance counselors who are
qualified, well - trained and competent are expected to function
in schools and other settings. Such professionals would be able
to enlist the support of staff members in effecting guidance
activities.
(9) The practitioners should practice within ethical and moral limits.
The ethical and moral guidelines should be such that clients
would feel secure and confident in using the services provided.
This also guarantees that counselors will not use techniques
and/or approaches for which they do not have competence; and
(10) The objectives of counseling should be based on clients’ needs
and not on the needs of the counselors. In pursuing such needs of
the client, the counselors must present a positive image.
3.2 Need for Guidance and Counseling
The reasons for the establishment of Guidance and Counseling in the
educational system of many countries are different from one another. In
the United States of America, for instance, it was the issue of space
science development. The fear that Russia was ahead in Space
technology led to the establishment of Guidance and Counseling. In
Nigeria, some factors that are responsible for the development of
guidance and counseling for the educational system include:
(a) Expansion in the Enrolment of Pupils/Students in Primary
and Secondary Schools
From time immemorial, enrolment in all stages of our educational
system has been on the increase. Due to this, Fafunwa (1990), a
one time Minister of Education, after examining the enrolment
trends, which of course did not include actual applications made
for enrolment, stated that:
mandatory student Guidance and Counseling
services should be established in all Nigerian
institutions of higher learning and through such
services, the true conditions of the Nigerian
economy and its ever changing labour market
situation and requirements would be exposed to
students’ choice of fields and skill of study and
inculcating in them the acceptance of the dignity
and more superior option of leaving institutions of
higher learning well prepared both as possible paid
employees of other and creators of jobs for self
and others, in both the formal and the informal
sectors of the economy. (p. 16).

(b) Skilled Work Force
Among the services offered through Guidance and Counselling is
to guide people into areas where jobs are available taken the
cognizance of their capability and competencies in order to
reduce the problem of unskilled and skilled work force. In the
Technical and sub-professional sectors, there is noticeable
shortage in manpower. We depended on foreign experts to run
our railways; Iron and Steel while the aviation sector is not
spared from this manpower shortage too. In the education sector,
the few experts who trained Nigerians to be technologically selfsufficient
have packed their bags and baggage for greener
pasture, and to the safety and academic freedom of western
countries. The Medical sector is not spared from this rot. There
is shortage among senior craftsmen and technical foremen as well
as high level secretarial and clerical personnel in the country
(Okon, 1984).
In the light of the fact that Nigeria has a lot of human and
material resources, one would have thought that the country
would get out of the underdevelopment. Other countries such as
India, China have done it. Therefore, the availability of Guidance
services within the education system can help in the development
of skills, attitudes, and potentials of Nigerian youths so as to
realize their fullest possible capabilities for national development.
(c) Automation in the World of Work
In 1972, Gaymer observed that that availability of professional
counselors in the school system would have rewarding and
increasing impact on the lives that students will have after they
leave school. She believes that the after school working lives of
student will differ radically from the present and the past. She
therefore remarked that automation and technological changes
and breakthroughs would lead to change their jobs more often;
relocate more often; change the type of jobs more often; and
update and trade in education for models to remain employable,
and they will have to diversify their practical skills to remain
competitive.
The import of these changes will require lots of people to seek for
guidance and counseling. Visitation to many of modern day
offices show that lots of changes have taken place comparing the
old office equipment that were in use. Offices now has an IBM
electric typewriter, a Computer, internet facility, a Fax machine, a

Photocopier, a Laser printer, an answering machine, and many of
such things. In industries, robots have come to be utilized in
many operational sectors. In the assembly line, it is the robot that
receive the order, does the parceling, the compilation, and the
hauling of equipment from one section of the assembly line to
another all with unwavering precision. Robots are now known to
fly planes, launch missiles and probe into outer space. The
implication of this technological revolution for the practice of
guidance and counseling can only be imagined than described.
Although it is difficult to predict what the technological future
will be like, suffice it to say that the nation that desires
development deep into the 21st century and beyond should not
pay lip service to guidance and counseling but should ensure that
all machinery is set in motion to maximize the potentiality of the
youths for timely absorptions, and survival in an uncertain
technological future.
(d) Growing Needs of Youths
According to Okon (1984), a NEED is a condition within an
individual that energizes and disposes an individual toward
certain kinds of behaviour. Durojaiye (1976) stated that the
developmental needs of youths include:
attaining individuality;
making progress towards an organized personality pattern;
iii) developing philosophy of life;

developing concept of values and desirable behaviour;
achieving a place in the society;
understanding of personal assets and liabilities;
vii) maturing of plans for future living;
viii) establishing deep personal relationships with individuals
of both sexes;

learning to live independently from their parent;
learning to adjust to changes resulting from physical and
social relationships and citizenship plans; and
learning to attain adult status by vocational plans, family,
and social relationships and citizenship plans.
14
All these needs of the youths call for a need of guidance and
counseling.

(e) Repeated Changes in the Education System
Since after independence, Nigeria has witnessed a number of
changes in the education sector. In the past, a pupil needed to
spend 8 years in the primary school, 5 years in the secondary
school, 2 years in the higher school, and 3 years in the University
(8-5-2-3). Later, the 6 years of primary, 5 years of secondary, 2
years of higher school, and 3 years of University system was
recommended and adopted. Currently, that is in vogue. Already,
there are calls in various sectors to change the system to 6-3-3-3-
3 to include three years at any College of Education or
Polytechnic. The present 6-3-3-4 does not include training at
College of Education or Polytechnics. These changes can cause
confusion for the individual, which again demands the guidance
services.
(f) Students’ adjustment in Universities and other Tertiary
Institutions
The students’ body is made up of students with different
personality make-up, traits and needs. Some are in the school
system to study and get the certificate which will enable them to
secure their future, some are there to socialize without really
knowing why they are in school; that is playing and wasting away
their time while some are there not knowing what course and
subject to choose or study nor even how to plan their time and
also develop appropriate study skills. This situation requires
counseling services handled by an expert to help the students
adjust adequately.
(g) Problem of National Integration
Nigeria, as judged by the 1993 census, has almost 104 million
inhabitants with population density of about 800 people per
square kilometer. Three major linguistic groups, the Hausas, Ibos
and Yorubas are found in the three main regions – Northern,
Eastern and Western parts of the country respectively. Each
group and section of the country is clamouring for a share in the
national cake. The consequence has been political instability,
religious intolerance, tribal loyalties, and all forms of vices which
have militated against the development of the country. Okon
(1984) has observed that the survival of Nigeria as a nation
depends largely on our degree of tolerance not only in economic,
social and political stability but to a large extent, on the ability of
every citizen to possess some measure of common understanding
attitudes, beliefs, skills and purposes. These attributes can be
inculcated in youths very early in their educational development.
Thus, the inevitability of guidance and counseling in this respect
cannot be overemphasized.
(h) Realities in Home and Family Life
Family climate has a high influence in the direction and
development of interests, abilities, aptitudes, and values of
children. Lots of changes these days happen in homes in Nigeria.
Most parents, because of the demands of their jobs, pay very little
attention to the development of their sons and daughters. Some
parents also show bad examples to their children. There are
parents who believe so much in ethnicity, alcoholism and
idolatry. Changes in home life which have brought about some
good are those resulting from urbanization where different ethnic
groups converge on a city to the point that the next door
neighbour may be someone from a different cultural boundary
altogether. Superstition is also de-emphasized in the urban
centres, inter-ethnic, inter-tribal and inter-state marriages are
occurring at increasing rates in Nigerian cities than in the rural
areas. Polygamy, which in the not too distant past, used to be a
measure of affluence and status is no longer in vogue. One of the
greatest changes in family life is in the area of extended family
network where ties have become weakened partly because of
economic realities, distance and different geographical mobility.
Changes in family and home life include rising trends in divorce
rates, single parenting, children studying far away from homes,
reduction in the number of children a family wants and the
provision of insurance for other members of the family. These
changes create a need for counselors to help children cope with
these changes.
(i)
Problems of Cultism
Cultism activities have been in Nigeria institutions since its
inception. The dimensions it’s taken these days are more pathetic
and worrisome. Many students are these days’ members of one
secret cult or the other and the level of what they do is fearful.
They kill, maim and destroy. These negative tendencies in the
societies and cults activities need to be exposed to individual
through guidance activities.
Self-Assessment Exercise: What are the developmental needs of the
youths according to Durojaiye (1976)? For the answers see page 14.
4.0 CONCLUSION
Guidance and Counseling activities should therefore be based on the
need and total development of every person. It is the duty of all
personnel in a setting to identify the needs of individual so that
programme activities can be designed to meet such needs.
5.0 SUMMARY
This unit has exposed the basic principles guiding the practice of
guidance and counseling and also reasons for the need for guidance and
counseling in the school system. This background has prepared you for
the next unit where you will read about its historical development both
in America and in Nigeria.
6.0 TUTOR MARKED ASSIGNMENT
1.
2.
Discuss why Nigeria needs Guidance and Counseling in the
educational system.
What are the basic principles of guidance? Using your own
words, describe the key aspects of guidance services.
7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS
Akinade, E. A., Sokan, B. O., Oseremen N. (1986). Introduction to
Guidance and Counseling: A Basic Text for Colleges and
Universities. Ibadan: Caltep.
Idowu, A. I. (Ed) (1998). Guidance and Counseling in Education.
Ilorin: Indemac.
Kolo, F. D. (1992). Guidance and Counseling in Perspective Zaria:
Sleveno Printing.
Makinde, O. (1983). Fundamental of Guidance and Counseling.
London: Macmillan.
Okon, S. E. (1984). Guidance for the 6-3-3-4 System of Education.
Zaria; Institute of Education.

Olayinka, M. S. (1972). The Role of Guidance and Vocational
Counseling in Nigerian Education. University of Lagos.

UNI
HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF GUIDANCE
AND COUNSELLING
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 History and origin of Guidance and Counseling
3.2 History and development of Guidance and Counseling in
Nigeria
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Readings
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Guidance and Counseling began to emerge as an identifiable aspect of
the Nigerian educational enterprise in the mid ‘50s.It is a discipline
whose history emanated from the experience of happenings in the
United States of America and it is these happenings that influence the
establishment of the Guidance and Counseling as a discipline in Nigeria.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:
(1) Explain the factors that led to the establishment of Guidance and
Counselling in America.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 History and Origin of Guidance and Counselling
History is a continuum and any kind of division imposed on it is more or
less arbitrary. Guidance and Counselling as a discipline has an abundant
evidence to show that it originated from America at the beginning of the
20th Century because of the society’s emphasis on individual
development. This could be seen from several historical events that took
place in the United States. These historical events are:
(1) Vocational Guidance Movement
(2) Standardized Testing Movement

(3) Mental Health Movement
(4) Pro-counselling Legislative Acts.
Vocational Guidance Movement: In 1908, Frank Parsons, founded a
Vocational Bureau in Boston. Parsons concern and belief was that if
individuals can understand their strengths and weaknesses, such
knowledge can be used to choose vocational opportunities This
pioneering effort played a great role in the evolution of modern
Guidance and Counselling.The vocational guidance movement was an
attempt to reduce problems of unemployment, want and poverty among
underprivileged Americans.. This experiments started by Parsons
yielded positive results in that many youngsters benefited tremendously
from the services rendered by the bureau (Shertzer and Stone, 1976).
Other pioneers in the advancement of counselling associated with the
vocational guidance movement are Meyer Bloomfield, who succeeded
Parsons as director of Boston’s Vocational Guidance Bureau, Frank P.
Godwin of the Cincinnati School system, Jesse B. Davis, Eli Weaver in
New York, George Merril in San Francisco and Hugo Munsterberg of
Harvard University. Each of these guidance pioneers put in their best to
see to the growth of the service. For instance, in 1910, Meyer
Bloomfield single handedly promoted the first National Conference on
vocational guidance in the United States of America. Eli Weaver, on the
other hand, promoted the Second National Conference on vocational
guidance in 1912 while George Menil was the first American to practice
counselling within the school system when he was a tutor in 1895 at the
Californian School of Mechanical Arts, San Francisco. Hugo
Munsterberg also pioneered the development of career guidance in
industry with the publication of his text titled “Psychology and
Industrial Efficiency”.
Guidance and counselling actually started in United States of America
with emphasis on vocational guidance. It is on the same trend that it
started in Nigeria considering the purpose and efforts of the Reverend
Sisters at St Theresa’s College Ibadan. It is worthy of note that emphasis
on vocational guidance in the historical evolution of the discipline of
Guidance and Counselling in developed and as well as in developing
societies may be reflective of the pre-eminence of the institution of work
in human civilization.
The Mental Health Movement also contributed positively to the
evolution of Guidance and Counselling. Clifford Beers was one of the
pioneers of the mental health movement. The publication of this book
titled “A Mind that Formed Itself” revolutionized mental health
practices and invariably it promoted the development of counselling
which can be regarded as part and parcel of mental health professions.
The testing movement also led to the development of test devices, which
greatly improved inventory and appraisal components of Guidance and
Counselling.
Another major factor in the evolution of guidance and counselling in the
United States is the enactment of series of Pro-Counselling and Pro-
Education Legislative Acts. The great depression as well as expansion
of government activities during the new deal era greatly increased public
funding for guidance programmes. Social upheavals, which
accompanied great depression and other crisis, forced the American
government to enact serious of pro-education and pro-counselling
legislations. Some of these legislations are the Vocational Education
Act of 1917, Vocational Rehabilitation Act of 1920, the Wagner Peysner
Act of 1933, the National Defense Education Act of 1958, the
Manpower Development Act of 1964 and the Career Education
Incentive Act of 1976.
Of all the legislation, the National Defense Education Act of 1958 more
than any piece of legislature promoted the growth of guidance and
counselling in the United States. When the soviet launched the world’s
first satellite in 1957, the Americans were worried that Soviet Union had
surpassed them in space technology. With typical competitive spirit
peculiar to America’s civilization, the United States space industry took
up the soviet’s challenge. As part of their effort to achieve parity with
the soviet in space technology, the Americans decided to overhaul the
educational system. In order to achieve this goal, American’s legislators
decided that career counselling should be provided in all American
Schools. That was the basic goal of the passage of the National Defense
Act of 1958. This legislation made massive funds available to Colleges
and Universities for training guidance counselors for American Schools.
Ever since that time, guidance and counselling in the United States had
been developing rather phenomenally. Now, having examined the
evolution of guidance and counselling in the United States, it is
necessary to examine the development of guidance and counselling in
Nigeria.
3.2 History and Development of Guidance and Counselling
in Nigeria
While the date of the formal start of modern guidance in USA is taken
as 1908 via the vocational guidance work of Frank Parsons (Father of
American Guidance Movement), 1958 can be regarded as the date of the
commencement of modern guidance in Nigeria. That year, the Catholic
Reverend Sisters in St. Theresa’s College, Ibadan, recognized the need
to give adequate career or vocational guidance to their final year
students. Therefore in 1958, the reverend sisters, assisted by Mrs.
Oruwariye, invited interested and enlightened members of the society to
the school. Specialists in different areas of endeavour who had made
their marks were invited to give career talks on their professions to their
final year students. This effort gave insight to the students about world
of work and hence assisted many of the students to select good jobs or
higher institutions of learning. The result was quite encouraging and it
geared some other schools in Ibadan and other big towns around to start
organizing career talks for their senior students. This singular move led
to emerging of career masters and mistresses while interested teachers in
the school system were assigned job of collation and disseminating of
career information to students.
In 1962, Ibadan Careers Council was formed. It was composed of
distinguished knowledgeable and philanthropic individuals. Their aim
was to propagate vocational guidance to students or the young ones.
They organized workshops, seminars and symposia. In 1967, Nigeria
Careers Council grew out of the Ibadan Career Council. The members
of the Ibadan Careers Council formed the nucleus and support of the
Nigeria Careers Council. They continued along the line of vocational
guidance. The Council incorporated career masters and mistresses. A
journal named “Careers” was published by this body to disseminate
current information about job.
In a move that showed recognition of the guidance and counselling
services, Dr. C. I. Berepiki, a Fellow of the Counselling Association of
Nigeria, was appointed the first Vocational Guidance Officer by the
Federal Ministry of Education, Lagos in 1961. He wrote An Approach
to Guidance in Schools. For a very long time after him, there were no
other trained officers to work actively in this unit but with the current
state of the profession, the unit is well manned by trained male and
female counselors. It now has two sections – Careers and Counselling
Sections. They organize workshops and conferences and coordinate
counselling activities in the country. Many States Ministries of
Education have similar set-ups.
Another opportunity to introduce guidance and counselling several
secondary schools when in 1967, Mr. Rees, an American, organized a
workshop at Comprehensive High School, Aiyetoro, Ogun State. The
motive was to plant the seed of guidance and counselling in that area
and he did it successfully. The Association, in 1992, started the same
acronym with the Christian Association of Nigeria (CAN), and the
Computer Association of Nigeria (CAAN). In order to avoid confusion,
at the Kano Conference in 1992, the Association dropped CAN and took
up CASSON i.e. (Counselling Association of Nigeria).
The Association has also encouraged the formation of State Branches.
This is to encourage ‘grassroots’ spread of the Association. Some state
branches are quite active. They hold various activities, workshops,
seminars and handle some counselling cases. This aspect is done on
individual basis or, in some cases; ‘team approach’ is used. Some state
branches have journals e.g. Imo State has Counselling Spectrum.
December 1, 1976 marked the birth of Counselling Association of
Nigeria at the University of Ibadan. The first president of the
Association was Prof. Olu Makinde, (1976 – 1980) he was succeeded by
Prof. S. A. Gesinde, (1980 – 1984), Prof. Para Mallum, (1984 – 1988),
Dr. (Mrs.) Achebe C. C. (1989 – 1990); and Prof. C. G. M. Bakare
(1990 – 1994); Dr. Nsa A. Nsa (1994 – 1996) and 1996 – 2002 Prof.
Carew, Prof. A. I. Idowu, (2002 – 2004) and Prof. Okobia (2004). The
Association is a body of trained guidance counselors mainly, but it
encourages interested individuals in the helping professions to join it.
The Association produces, through its senior members in the
Universities and some Colleges of Education and other counselors for
both the private and public sectors of the Nigerian economy. The
journal of the Association is called “The Counsellor”. Through it,
research findings of members, which are discussed at the annual
conferences, are disseminated. Conference proceedings are also
published.
In 1975, the first Department of guidance and counselling in Nigeria
was established in the University of Ibadan. The second full-fledged
department was established at the University of Ilorin in 1981. Ever
since then, several universities and some colleges of education have
been producing well-trained counselors. As at now, several counselors
have had postgraduate training with Master and PhD degrees. There are
some professors already in the discipline. Several journals have been
formed to disseminate research findings. These include Journal of
Applied Psychology (UI); Nigerian Journal of Guidance and
Counselling (University of Ilorin, Ilorin); Journal of Counselling and
Development (Obafemi Awolowo University, Ife); Journal of Research
in Counselling Psychology (Ogun State University, Ago-Iwoye); Journal
of Counselling and Consulting Psychology (Lagos State University, Ojo,
Lagos). Several textbooks have been written on different areas of
guidance and counselling by the trained counsellors.
The Federal Government has inserted the need for guidance and
counselling in our schools in its National Policy on Education (1981).
This has helped to make all the State Governments to establish guidance
and counselling units in their Ministries of Education. In addition to
counselling units in the Universities, there are some private clinics in the
big cities such as Lagos, Ibadan and Owerri.
Suffice to say that although guidance and counselling is a relatively new
comer to the Nigerian educational scene, it is gradually making its
impact. It is still evolving. Guidance counsellors are playing their part
in the implementation of the ongoing 6-3-3-4 educational systems.
4.0 CONCLUSION
Guidance and Counselling as a discipline has an abundant evidence to
show that it originated from America at the beginning of the 20th
Century because of the society’s emphasis on individual development.
5.0 SUMMARY
History of the genesis of what is known today as guidance and
counseling was narrated. It revealed the development of Guidance and
Counseling both in America and Nigeria and the efforts of those who are
really behind its establishment. These include the various movements
that were involved in America and also the organizations and
individuals that saw to its establishments in Nigeria.
6.0 TUTOR MARKED ASSIGNMENT
1) Write two important dates and what occurred then in the history
of Guidance and Counselling in Nigeria.
2) Justify why guidance and counselling started with emphasis on
vocational guidance.
3) Discuss the historical factors that contributed to the emergence of
guidance and counselling in the United States.
24

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS
Kolo, F.D. (1992): Guidance and Counselling in Perspective. Zaria
Steveno .Chapter 2 Pages 10 – 20.
Akinade, E.A. et. Al. (1976): An Introduction to Guidance and
Counselling: A basic text for Colleges and Universities. Ibadan.
Caltop. Chapter 2 Pages 24 – 35.
Idowu, A.I. (1998): Guidance and Counselling in Education. Ilorin,
Inderac. Chapter 1 Pages 21 – 25.
25
EDU 724
UNIT 4
FUNDAMENTALS OF GUIDANCE AND COUNSELLING
DEVELOPMENTAL PROBLEMS OF
GUIDANCE AND COUNSELLING
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Problems confronting development of Guidance and
Counselling Programme in Nigeria
3.2 The prospect of Guidance and Counselling in Nigeria
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Readings
1.0 INTRODUCTION
There are lots of hiccups in the different aspects of the Nigerian
educational development. This unit will treat the problems confronting
the development of guidance and counseling aspect of the Nigerian
educational development. It will also show the prospects of guidance
and counseling in Nigeria
2.0 OBJECTIVES
By the end of the unit, you should be able to:
1.
2.
Explain why Guidance and Counselling has not developed fully
in Nigeria.
List the prospects of Guidance and Counselling services in
Nigeria
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Problems Confronting the Development of the Guidance
and Counselling Programme In Nigeria
Although, the rationale for the introduction of Guidance and
Counselling is inserted in the National Policy on Education (1981), the
problems confronting the development of guidance and counselling
programme could be grouped as those caused by men, materials and

money. Its reception is received with suspicion and a ‘wait and see’
attitude. This is due to the fact that there is:

Paucity of trained counsellors. APGA recommended that there
should be a ratio of 1 to 250 (counsellors-students/clients).
Denga (1985) says the ratio, as at 1980 was 1:800. The situation
could be worse. This is because the limited members of trained
counsellors are moving out of school settings into non-school
settings. A typical school with a population of 1,000 students is
expected to have four counsellors; now such a school either has
none or at best only one. This poor counsellor-student ratio does
not encourage the growth of guidance counselling in such
schools. However, special schools such as the Federal
Government Colleges, ‘Military’ Secondary Schools, Universitybased
Secondary Schools as well as standard/elitist private
schools have adequate number of guidance counsellors. The
percentage of such schools compared with the total population of
secondary schools in Nigeria is very small. It is suggested that
more guidance counsellors should be trained and encouraged. In
1984, the Association of Nigeria Conference of Principals of
Secondary Schools requested that guidance counsellors be posted
to secondary schools. This should be effected.
Relative newness of Guidance and Counselling in Nigeria. While
western education was introduced into the country about 1842,
Guidance and Counselling was formally introduced in 1958.
That is after more than a century. Educational instruction and
administration had been entrenched in the educational system
long before it. Some educational practitioners tend to view it as
an intruder.
Doubt about the efficacy of guidance and counselling. Some
people such as uninitiated colleagues, teachers, principals or
administrators doubt the efficacy of counselling. Psychology has
really not attained the degree of precision found in the physical
sciences. People, especially adults are therefore skeptical about
reliance about reliance on its use. Such people think it is more
applicable to children who are not yet ripe enough to make vital
decisions for them. They believe adults do not need it. One may
wonder who needs Marital, Rehabilitative, Parent Child
counselling if not the grown-ups (Orubu 1986, Akinade 1990).
Blurred Role of the Guidance Counsellor. Several people in the
society do not know the specific roles of the counsellor. Even in
the school settings, where awareness is expected to be high,

school personnel such as teacher and principals do not
understand or they misconstrue the functions of the counsellors.
For instance, Makinde (1981) wrote that head teachers see them
as rivals-instead of helpers.
Resistance by colleagues and principals. It has been observed by
many guidance counsellors that they often experience resistance
from institutional heads, influential and significant members of
staff of their establishments. Such officers often act in ways,
which prevent the spread of counsellings. Olaosebikan (1980)
reported that counsellors face resistance, which might be stiff and
persistent from principals and colleagues. Most times,
counsellors tend to be viewed with suspicion by them. Some
institutional heads might be apprehensive that the ‘new comer’
counsellor does not erode their prestige or popularity and power
among students, parents and members of the public (….Ikan
1980). Resistance of institutional heads may be reflected in their
lukewarm, poor or reluctant attitude in supporting the programme
or refusal to formally introduce the counsellor to other members
of school staff.
Feeling of suspicion of the role/integrity of counsellors. Some
school personnel still see the counsellors as having a ‘hidden
agenda’ or something to hide when a client goes into the
counselling room (where this is available). Some give
counsellors negative or derogatory labels. This is more so where
the other workers doubt the moral integrity of counsellors who
give individual counselling to young ones. This feeling becomes
more serious when a male counsellor treats female students and
gives the interaction high confidentiality, yet, counselling
demand reasonable privacy.
Confidentiality: The issue of confidentiality is pertinent in
counselling. Clients expect their secrets or privileged
information to be kept secret or confidential and not exposed to
others. However, referral agents such as teachers, peers, parents,
and principals expect counsellors to divulge such information to
them. Failure of the counsellor to reveal the ‘secret’ may raise
the degree of suspicion of his activities. Revealing the secrets
lead to loss of faith in counselling and counsellors on one part,
will lose clients and friends of such clients and counselling will
be the big loser on the long run. Yet, all these are happening.
Lack of commitment of Government Officers. Although, the
Federal Government entrenched the guidance and counselling
programme in the NPE, (1981), there is still much to do when it
comes to practical support and its implementation. More
committed action will help the growth of the profession. For
instance, there should be adequate planning that would map out
both short and long term goals as well as strategies of evaluating
the progress being made.
Inadequate funding. Guidance and Counselling is not well
funded. Today, the education enterprise has become a costly
venture. Enough funds are not allocated to each school to run its
various services. Where fund is available, very little is
earmarked for counselling purposes. It seems the various levels
of government (Federal, State and Local) do not want to stretch
their budgets with extra demands from an emerging unit such as
guidance and counselling. Yet, it is known that effective
counselling demands adequate funding to purchase items such as
psychological tests, journals and various publications, play
gadgets, cardboards and various felt pens as well as money to
organize activities such as Excursions, Career Clubs and Career
Day/Week and furnishing a counsellor’s office.
10) Lack of Counselling Office/Room: Because of several factors
such as explosion of students’ population and inadequate number
of classrooms, problem of space or office accommodation is
common in the typical secondary school. This is particularly so
in the urban centers (where counsellors may be found). This
results into a situation in which there is hardly any spare room
that can be released for counselling as ‘counsellor’s office’.
Guidance may be given anywhere but counselling needs privacy
if it is to be effective. One may see a counsellor interacting with
a client in one corner of the staff room, under a tree or a place
seemingly away from people but such areas are never distractionfree.
The best that occurs in schools without a counselling office
is guidance or educational / vocational counselling, not sociopersonal
counselling.
11) Paucity of Psychological Tests: There are very few ‘made in
Nigeria’ for Nigerians psychological tests. Several tests are
being constructed but only a few of them have been standardized.
These tests include tests of Prof. C.G.M. Bakare, Prof. Akinboye,
WAEC 21 ID Aptitude Tests and Federal Ministry of Education
Battery of Aptitude Tests for streaming JSS III students into
course families in SSS 1. Using psychological tests is one of the
factors that make counselling scientific and more objective.
However, there are relatively few counsellors who can identify,

use and interpret the relevant ones. The available foreign tests
may not be culture-fair and hence may not be appropriate for use
on culture in which they were neither validated nor standardized.
Deliberate efforts should be made to construct and standardize
more psychological tests. Counsellors should be trained in ways
to use them too. They should be sold to adequately trained users
at affordable prices. They should be available as well.
3.2 The prospect of Guidance and Counselling in Nigeria
The prospect for Guidance and Counselling services in Nigeria depends
on the solution to the problems enumerated above. Alao et al (2003)
remarked however that, based on the present trend, it seems that the
future is bright for Guidance and Counselling in Nigeria for the
following reasons:
(1) The entire educational system in Nigeria is aware of the need of
Guidance and Counselling services to the students. This
realization has made the Federal Government approve study
programmes in guidance and counselling for most Universities in
the country. Of recent, Ahmadu Bello University begins a B. Ed.
programme on Guidance and Counselling by 1991/92 session.
This is in realisation of the need of such services. With many
guidance counsellors we then struggle for professionalization and
conditions of service. Almost all Nigerian Universities have got
a Guidance and Counselling Centre to help their students. All
these are indications of awareness. However effective these are
now is another question to be answered by research.
(2) Also many bodies are becoming interested in the Guidance and
Counselling services now. For example, in 1987 Industrial
Training Fund organized a National Workshop on Guidance and
Counselling. Also in 1988 Counselling Association of Nigeria
organized their Annual Conference around the theme of
Counselling outside the schools. Others from different settings
turned out. With this trend, it may seem in the nearest future that
the use of guidance services may permeate other sectors of the
economy.
(3) Guidance and Counselling is also being proposed to be integrated
into the training of Nigerian Teachers. This implies that in the
nearest future, Guidance and Counselling may be well
established in the schools. With every teacher being adequately
educated on Guidance and Counselling, the commonly reported

rancor between counsellors and teachers may be resolved hence
prospect for practice.
(4) Problems of various types are emerging in our society. Marital
problems, family problems, vocational problems, relationship
problems and retirement problems. All these and others demand
the attention of the counsellors. As long as these problems exist
in the society, guidance counsellors will always have work to do
either as public or private counsellors. With the factors or
conditions still operational in Nigeria, then the future is bright for
counsellors and the prospect therein may depend on how
effective the counsellors use their skills and competencies to help
their fellow human beings to understand and resolve their
problems in a more realistic way.
4.0 CONCLUSION
The development of guidance and counselling programme was
bedeviled with myriad of problems ranging from those caused by men,
materials and money. This informed the rationale for the introduction of
Guidance and Counselling inserted in the National Policy on Education
(1981). Notwithstanding the problems enumerated, evidences point to
the fact that based on the present trend, the future is bright for Guidance
and Counselling in Nigeria.
5.0 SUMMARY
A number of problems in Nigeria that are still hindering the
advancement of Guidance and Counselling are explained in this unit.
Among these factors is the relative low number of professionally trained
counsellors to the entire population that needs the services. The
prospects for Guidance and Counselling in Nigeria were also discussed.
6.0 TUTOR MARKED ASSIGNMENT
(1) Has counselling any future in Nigeria? Discuss with your friend.
7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS
Kolo, F.D. (1992): Guidance and Counselling in Perspective. Zaria
Steveno. Chapter 2 Pages 10 – 20.
Akinade, E.A. et. Al. (1976): An Introduction to Guidance and
Counselling: A basic text for Colleges and Universities. Ibadan.
Caltop. Chapter 2 Pages 24 – 35.
31
EDU 724 FUNDAMENTALS OF GUIDANCE AND COUNSELLING
Idowu, A.I. (1998): Guidance and Counselling in Education. Ilorin,
Inderac. Chapter 1 Pages 21 – 25.
32
EDU 724
UNIT 5

FUNCTIONS OF THE SCHOOL COUNSELLOR
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Functions of a School Counsellor
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Readings
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In this unit, you will read about the functions performed by the school
guidance counsellor in the school system. This will give you an insight
into the different kinds of services that are offered by the professionally
trained Guidance counselor in the school and its environment. You
should be ready to make use of these services for the benefit of your
students.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:
(1) Discuss the functions performed by the Guidance Counsellor in
the school setting.
(2) List the functions performed by the Guidance counselor in the
school system.
(3) Enumerate the services offered by the school Guidance
Counsellor.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Functions of the School Counsellor
The functions carried out by the school guidance counsellor are made up
of the execution of a number of highly specialized services that
constitutes the pattern of activities within the school guidance
programme. These services are the basic elements of guidance and
counselling programme; they are the formalized actions or steps the
school guidance counsellor take to make guidance and counselling
operational and available to students. These functions in the school

setting include appraisal service, counselling service, information
service, planning, placement and follow-up service, orientation service,
consulting service, evaluation service and referral service.
Appraisal Service – This could also be termed individual
analysis. Okon (1984) remarked that appraisal is a
developmental or longitudinal process of collecting, processing,
storing and using a variety of objective and subjective personal
and social information to help the school staff have a better
understanding of the students as well as help individual student to
better know and understand self. Suffice it to say that appraisal
service involves collecting, analyzing and using a variety of tools
to gather data through which students are made to understand
themselves. Through this function, the guidance counsellor
makes a student to become aware of his characteristics, strengths
and weaknesses and further develops rational decision making
capabilities. This service enables the counsellor to provide
relevant data that will enable parents, teachers and administrators
understand students.
Counselling Service – This function enables the counsellor who
is trained to give assistance to and/or to have an interactive
relationship with the counsellee who needs assistance. Through
this service, counsellees are helped to deal effectively with self
and the reality of his/her environment. The service regarded as
the nucleus of guidance service helps facilitate self understanding
and self development which afford individuals or group of people
a better understanding of themselves in terms of their confused
ideas, hopes, fears, feelings and aspirations.
Informative Service – Through this service, the guidance
counsellor is always able to provide the school and the students
with better knowledge of educational, vocational and personal –
social opportunities in order to have the benefit of making
informed decision and choices. This function involves collection
of data in diverse areas of education, career and social life for
presentation to students in order to be informed so that they can
make decisions with ease in increasingly complex society.
Planning Service – Planning is to decide ahead of time what an
individual wants to do, and the way he will do it. Part of a
guidance counsellor’s functions includes assisting the students
plan their activities. The guidance counsellor helps students plan
their educational, vocational and personal social activities
realistically in order to assist them in achieving their goals.

Placement Service – The guidance counsellor carries out
placement functions in and outside the school setting. In the
school setting, placement can be carried out by placing students
in appropriate classes and/or schools, courses, training or
vocations. He or she can also do placement for students who are
to go for attachment, practical or industrial training outside the
school setting. The counsellor is always armed with tools that
could be used for effective placement within or outside the school
setting.
Follow-up Service – This function enables the guidance
counsellor to see through the services he/she must have offered
the counsellee. It is an avenue through which the counsellor
determines the effectiveness of planning and placement activities.
This service allows the counsellor to see and verify whether the
guided or counseled individual or group is coping after guidance
or counselling.
Orientation Service – This function serves the purpose of
acquainting new students in an academic environment with the
facilities, challenges and problems and prospects in their new
school. It is a guidance service that allows the guidance
counsellor to make the new students psychologically stable in
the new environment (new school) because they will be meeting
with new set of people, administration, rules and regulations and
environment which may require adjustment for them to be able to
cope perfectly.
Evaluation Service – This enables the guidance counsellor to
assess the effectiveness of his stewardship in the school system.
The evaluation can be carried out through the use of interview,
observation or questionnaire. These measurement instruments
are used to gather data which will reveal whether or not the
services provided are adequate in the school. The gathered
information will enable the counsellor to improve upon the
services he/she is providing or modify or suspend anyone that is
not achieving the desired result.
Consulting Service – Consultation here refers to interaction
between the guidance counsellor and other professionals in the
school setting. It is an avenue through which technical assistance
are offered to other professionals in the school in order to become
more effective in the services they offer to the students and staff.

10. Referral Service – This is an act of transferring a
client/counsellee to another professional or agency where his/her
problem can be appropriately handled. The professional or
agency may be within, or outside the school setting. Shertzer and
Stone (1976) remarked that personnel or agency outside the
school setting are used because they provide specialised services
that the guidance counsellor cannot claim to have expertise in all
sphere of endeavour, he makes referral with the consent of the
client / counsellee on matters outside his/her competence.
The entire functions of the guidance counsellor in the school setting are
to assist each student to understand himself and live effectively in the
society. The need for guidance services in the school system is therefore
based on the assumption that the individual who understands himself
and his environment will be more productive and effective in his entire
endeavour. The objectives which the functions performed by the
guidance counsellor in the school system according to Ipaye (1983)
includes:
(i) To help students develop the skills of self study, self analysis and
self understanding.
(ii) Guidance services should help students develop awareness of
opportunities in the personal, social, educational, vocational areas
by providing them with appropriate, useful and useable
information.
(iii) Also, guidance services in the school should help students
acquire the skills of collecting and using appropriate information.
(iv) To assist all students in making appropriate and satisfactory
personal, social, educational, vocational and leisure choices.
(v) Guidance service should help students develop positive attitude
to self, to others, to appropriate national issues, to work and
learning.
(vi) To help students acquire as early as possible in their lives a
positive image of selves through self understanding and self
direction.
(vii) Guidance services should help students who are under achieving
to use their potentials to the maximum.

(viii) Also, guidance services in the school should help students relate
behaviour meaningfully to cognitive achievement and the
chances of success in life.
(ix) To help build up or sharpen the students’ perception of reality,
development of a sense of autonomy and to whip up the
motivation for creativity and productivity.
(x) Guidance services in the schools should assist students in the
process of developing and acquiring skills in problem solving
and decision making.
(xi) To work with significant others in the life of students by helping
them to understand the needs and problems of the students with
the purpose of creating, arousing and sustaining their interest in
and their understanding of the students’ needs, problems and
goals so that the students can be optimally helped to attain their
goals, handle these problems and those needs.
(xii) To help route the nation’s human resources into appropriate,
useful and beneficial channels thus preventing unnecessary
economic wastage.
(xiii) Guidance services should help identify and nurture human
potentialities in various fields or endeavours thus ensuring
adequate manpower development in various sectors of the
economy.
(xiv) To help build up in individuals positive attitude to fellow
Nigerians and a sense of total commitment to the unity of
Nigeria.
SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
List the functions performed by the guidance-counselor in the school
system according to Ipaye (1983).
ANSWERS TO SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
See Pages 34and 35 above.
4.0 CONCLUSION
The services offered by a School Counsellor are the formalized actions
or steps the school guidance counsellor takes to make guidance and
counselling operational and available to students. These functions in the
37
EDU 724 FUNDAMENTALS OF GUIDANCE AND COUNSELLING
school setting include appraisal service, counselling service, information
service, planning, placement and follow-up service, orientation service,
consulting service, evaluation service and referral service.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, you have studied what the functions of the school guidance
counsellors are. With this knowledge, you will be able to assist in
carrying out the guidance functions in the school setting. You know why
counsellees are on referral to other personnel within or outside the
school system. Orientation services among others are also no longer new
to you.
6.0 TUTOR MARKED ASSIGNMENT (TMA)
(1) Enumerate and discuss fully the services offered by the Guidance
Counsellor in the school setting
7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS
Ipaye, T. (1983). Guidance and Counselling Practices, Ile-Ife,
University of Ife Press.
Okon, S. E (1984). Guidance for 6-3-3-4 System of Education. Zaria;
Institute of Education ABU
Shertzer and Stone (1976). Fundamentals of Guidance; Boston,
Houghton, Mifflin and Company.
38
EDU 724
UNIT 6

FUNCTIONS OF THE MAJOR
STAKEHOLDERS IN GUIDANCE
AND COUNSELLING
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Roles and functions of major stakeholders in School
Guidance
Programme
3.1.1 Guidance functions of School Principals
3.1.2 Guidance functions of Teachers
3.1.3 Guidance functions of School Counsellor
3.1.4 Guidance functions of the Parents or Guardians
3.1.5 Guidance responsibilities of the School Pupils
3.1.6 The Community and the School Guidance
Programme
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Readings
1.0 INTRODUCTION
There are some people whose interest and participation in guidance and
counselling services in the school setting are very important. These
people’s participation help determine the success or failure of the
guidance programme in the school. The guidance programme will only
be useful if the key persons play their roles individually and collectively
for the success of the guidance programme. In this unit, you will be
reading about some of the responsibilities of these key persons. The key
persons include the principal, teachers, the pupils or students, the parents
and even the entire community.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
By the end of this unit, you will be able to:
1. identify and discuss the roles and functions of major stakeholders
in the school-guidance programme;

state and explain the basic steps involved in ensuring effective
community-participation in school guidance; and
Identify the functional advantages of effective community
participation in school guidance.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Roles and Functions of Major Stakeholders In School
Guidance Services
The school-principal, classroom teacher, school-guidance counsellors,
parents and guardians of pupils and the pupils themselves are major
stakeholders in school-guidance services. These major-stakeholders
have specific roles and responsibilities for the success and effectiveness
of school guidance programme. It should, however, be restated that
only through the team-approach could the guidance programme yield the
best results. Perhaps, it is important at this junction to examine the
functions of each of these major stakeholders.
3.1.1 Guidance Functions of School-Principals
The school-principal is the chief executive within the secondary
school-system. He is by virtue of this position expected to
provide leadership for all school-based programme, including
school-guidance. The following, however, are some of the
specific functions of the principal in school-guidance practice.
The principal should recognise and appreciate the need for and
the importance of a comprehensive school guidance programme
for all pupils.
The principals should make provision in terms of budgetary
allocations and physical plant planning for effective delivery of
school-guidance services.
Provide the needed facilities, equipment, supplies and clerical
and administrative support-systems for effective school guidance.
Direct and coordinate school guidance programme cooperatively
with other members of staff within the school.
Take responsibility for setting-up the school guidance committee
after consultation with the counsellor and other staff in the
school.

Take responsibility for consulting with members of staff to arrive
at unanimous decisions on such matters pertaining to
organizational structure, individuals’ roles and functions of all
personnel involved in school-guidance programme.
Plan, initiate and develop a tradition of in-service training for
school counsellors.
Plan, coordinate and mobilize community based-resources to
enhance school guidance programme.
The most important guidance role of the school principal is perhaps to
ensure that the whole school climate becomes a growth-promoting
environment where pupils and teachers are free to be themselves even
while still in teaching-learning contexts.
3.1.2 Guidance Functions of Teachers
According to Zeran and Riccion (1962), the following are the guidance
functions of school teachers:.
Know and use the basic principles of human behaviour.
Develop skills in observing and analysing student behaviour in
order to ascertain when an incident is significant, and, also to be
sure that it will not be reported out of context.
Provide the student with facts about himself and his environment
as a basic framework for thinking logically about his goals and
then relating them to his abilities.
Place emphasis on self-understanding, self-direction, utilisation of
potentials, and acceptance of responsibilities for actions by the
student.
Express to the principal the need for an organised programme of
guidance services.
Cooperate with the principal in the evaluation of existing
guidance services and in the inventory to staff competencies
useful in the guidance service.
Accept the opportunity to participate in the planning and
development stages of the programme

Recognise the need for specialised guidance personnel and
understand the relationships so necessary between the guidance
personnel and the classroom teacher.
Assist in providing data for the students’ cummulative record
folder and utilize these data in a professional manner.
10. Develop home and classroom activity materials.
11. Integrate occupational, educational, and personal-social
information into the respective subjects.
12. Review constantly course content and curricular offerings to
meet student needs.
13. Realise the necessity of becoming concerned with all phases of
the student’s developmental patterns, rather than just with his
intellectual achievements.
14. Participate in case conferences.
15. Assist students whenever possible and refer those whose needs
are beyond their competencies.
16. Request in-service assistance in the further development of old,
and the acquiring of new competencies useful in performing the
guidance activities.
On the whole, teachers must realise that classroom teaching and learning
is indeed a therapeutic exercise. Every teacher therefore needs to have a
guidance orientation to his/her teaching-learning activities. Classroom
teaching must be interesting, it must be interactive, it must be animating;
it has to have a personal touch. All these involve that the classroom
teacher must develop guidance competencies.
SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1
Differentiate between the principal’s and teacher’s responsibilities in the
guidance programme? List five.
3.1.3 Guidance Functions of the School Counsellor
As discussed earlier, school counsellors perform functions that are very
germane to both the academic and personality well-being of school
students. Several authorities in guidance such as Makinde (1984), Ipaye

(1980), Brammer (1996), Makinde & Alao (1987) and others have
advocated that the school counsellor must perform his functions in such
a way as to carry along the whole school environment where they are
operating. While going through these functions of a counsellor, it
should be realized that the functions should be carried out cooperatively
with other professional members of the school system.
Zeran & Riccio (1962) beautifully spelt out the functions of the school
counsellor as follows:
.
Evaluate his professional preparation and strengthen areas of
deficiency.
Ascertain that his understandings coincide with those of the
principal relative to his role and responsibilities as well as line
and staff relationships in the organisational pattern.
Obtain the cooperative participation of the staff.
Demonstrate a desire to have a built-in system of evaluation as
part of the programme.
Recommend to the principal areas for research and study as well
as those supplementary competencies, which should be
considered when employing new personnel.
Assist in the development of in-service programmes and
participate in those areas of special competence.
Encourage teachers to identify students needing assistance and
also those that have special talents.
Identify the potential drop-out and seek to meet his specific needs
in an effort to salvage him so that he may complete his formal
education.
Encourage students to accept the responsibility for full utilization
of their potentials.
10. Provide help in developing and carrying on case conferences.
11. Stimulate teachers to provide materials for the student’s
individual cummulative record folders and to use them in a
professional manner.
12. Confer with parents.
13. Refer students needing assistance beyond their competency.
14. Maintain good public relations with community, country and
stage agencies.
15. Assist the school librarian in obtaining and keeping current
materials on occupational, educational, and personal-social
information.
16. Help teachers obtain materials in the area of the informational
services.
17. Demonstrate his professional competency.
On the whole, the school counsellor is expected to provide technical
leadership for school guidance programme. Most of the functions
highlighted above reinforce the role of the school counsellor as the
technical and professional leader of all guidance activities in the school.
3.1.4 Functions of Parents or Guardians
Parents and guardians are expected to cooperate with the school in the
education and guidance of their children. Cooperation is the best word
that summarises the functions of parents and guardians (Zeran & Riccio,
1962). The following are some of the specific cooperative functions of
parents in the school guidance programme.
Parents should provide information. Parents have responsibility
for providing information which would be useful in providing
proper guidance for their children.
Parents should also encourage their children to make use of
guidance services.
Parents should also utilize guidance services in the school to
learn more about their children.
Parents should also examine their own home lives to determine if
their children are operating from a home environment that is
conducive to learning.
Parents should ensure that they help the school by teaching their
children proper attitudes such as those of self-discipline, selfEDU
724 FUNDAMENTALS OF GUIDANCE AND COUNSELLING
improvement, dignity of labour, acceptance of responsibility, and
honesty.
3.1.5 Guidance Responsibilities of Pupils
The pupils, students or clients are expected to discharge their
responsibilities too. Among them are:
(1) To cooperate with teachers and school administration when they
are sent to the counsellor for guidance.
(2) To recognize and accept the counsellor as a professional.
(3) To go for counselling as the need arises for them.
(4) To make use of educational and occupational materials provided
for them by the school guidance services.
(5) They are to open up i.e. ready to give the counsellor any
information needed to help them in the counselling process.
(6) Pupils or clients are also to help create awareness for others of the
importance of guidance and counselling in the school. In so
doing, they will strengthen the programme.
(7) They are to assist the guidance programme by informing their
parents of the material, and other needs of the school guidance
programme so that they can provide.
SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2

Examine the functions of the guidance counsellor.
Identify the guidance responsibilities of school pupils.
3.1.6 The Community and the School Guidance Programme
The community is where the school is located. It has a right to expect
the best from members of the school system. It is also the
responsibilities of the community to provide facilities and services that
will allow the school to produce the best from the students and other
members of the school community. The attitude of the community
affects the tone of the school.
The community must relate closely with the school. The school
guidance counsellor should tap from the pool of resources in the
45
EDU 724 FUNDAMENTALS OF GUIDANCE AND COUNSELLING
community in providing effective guidance services to students. The
following are some of the areas of where the community could be useful
for school guidance service
The community comprises a referral resource base for the school
guidance programme.
The community should show interest in the school guidance
activities organised for them and their children.
The community provides avenues or opportunities for work-study
programme for the students.
Organisation of field trips to places of occupational interest must
involve community participation.
Placement services must be based on the good understanding of
occupational and educational opportunities in the community.
The community can provide resource persons for career talks and
information needed for counselling.
4.0 CONCLUSION
On the whole, the school needs to harness the resources available in the
community and bring them to bear on the quality of services offered
pupils in the school. The school counsellor must always bear in mind
that the cooperation of the community is needed in order to provide
effective guidance services to pupils within the school.
5.0 SUMMARY
Major stakeholders’ roles in the school guidance services have been
examined in this unit. Cooperation is highly regarded in the discharge
of the various guidance roles and functions of the stakeholders in
school-guidance practice. The significance of community participation
in school guidance was also discussed in this unit.
6.0 TUTOR MARKED ASSIGNMENT

Discuss the guidance roles and responsibilities of three of the
major stakeholders in the school guidance programme.
Highlight five ways in which the community can participate in
the school guidance programme.
EDU 724 FUNDAMENTALS OF GUIDANCE AND COUNSELLING
7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS
Brammer, L.M. (1996). The Helping Relationships: Process and Skills
6th Ed. Englewood Cliffs, N.J. Prentice-Hall.
Brewer, T.M. (1932). Education as Guidance. New York, Macmillan.
Kolo, F.D. (1992). Guidance and Counselling in Perspective. Zaria:
Steveno. Makinde Olu (1984). Fundamentals of Guidance and
Counselling. Macmillan Publishers Ltd. London.
Makinde Olu & Alao (1987). The Profile of Career Education, Signal
Educational Services Ltd., Ibadan.
Zeran, F.R. & Riccion, A.C. (1962). Organisations and Administration
of Guidance Services. Rand McNally and Company, Chicago.

UNIT 7
ORGANISATION OF GUIDANCE SERVICES
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
Organising and administering a School Guidance Programme
3.1.1 Planning and organising Guidance Programme
Problems affecting the effective implementation of Guidance
Programme in Nigeria
Solutions to the Problems
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Readings
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In this unit, you will learn about how to organise and administer a
guidance programme in the school system. This will reveal to you how
the school guidance counsellor is expected to go about handling his or
her professional functions and activities in the school.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
By the end of the unit, you will be able to:

Discuss how guidance services should be carried out in the
school system
Identify and explain what is expected of the guidance counsellor
while planning and administering the guidance services in the
school

3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Organising and Administering of a School Guidance
Programme
3.1.1 Planning and Organising Guidance Programme
It is a statement of fact that guidance programme is yet to be fully
introduced in our schools in Nigeria. In fact, in few schools where
career masters/mistresses provide information and a skeletal form of
guidance programme, such service rendered by the personnel are
inadequate because of their limited experience, background and training.
An important aspect in the organisation and administration of school
guidance is the need to plan the programme of action. In other words, it
is necessary to decide the strategy to be used before any programme of
guidance can be introduced. Planning essentially involves deciding in
advance what is to be done and how to accomplish the task. Therefore,
a counsellor must be armed with adequate data on the type of
programme to be introduced in the school before embarking on such a
venture.
There are certain principles that should be borne in mind in an attempt to
introduce a guidance programme into the school setting. Among other
things, the following seems to be prominent:
(i) Guidance should rather be introduced gradually than being
superimposed on the school and the staff.
(ii) The goals and objectives of the programme must conform to the
instructional activities of the school.
(iii) The school guidance programme must facilitate continuous
communication among all members of the school.
(iv) Such a programme must have special facilities without which the
counsellor cannot function effectively.
(v) Above all, it must constantly be engaged in a process of selfexamination,
that is, the programme must be evaluated on
continuous basis.
Against this background, a school counsellor who is mindful of the fact
that the programme must be planned and reasonably executed must

follow some steps in the attempt to introduce the programme. Some of
the steps are as follows:
1. Pre-planning Stage: i.e. preliminary activities. At this stage, the
counsellor carries out the following activities:
(a) Need Assessment of the Programme
The counsellor on arriving at the school must conduct a
situation analysis which refers to assessing the needs for
the programme. This consists of a private and
independent investigation of the desirability or otherwise
of the programme in the school setting. The need
assessment data will reveal the students problems, the
population of the students in the school, available facilities
and the acceptance or otherwise of the proposed
programme.
(b) Formulation of the Policy and Objectives
Armed with the need assessment data on the programme,
the counsellor now proceeds to formulate policy and state
in clear terms the objectives of the programme. The
objectives must be related to the needs of the students. In
addition, at this stage, attempts will be made to delineate
the functions of the programme and the types of personnel
that will be needed for the programme.
(c) Determining the means and methods of
2.
Implementation
The counsellor must determine in advance the approach to
be used in executing the programme. The most suitable
approach should be selected for the programme.
Planning Stage: The following sub-stages are note worthy under
the planning stage:
(a) Consultation
This is very vital to the success of the programme. Having
collected relevant information about the desirability of the
programme for a particular school, the counsellor must
consult the principal, the staff, other school functionaries,
the students and the parents. He must first sell the

programme and its objectives to them thus, seeking their
blessing and support for the programme. In other words,
the programme must be approved by the entire school
Community before it takes off.
In addition, the counsellor must determine the site and
facilities for the programme, supporting personnel, staff
service training, participation and support of the
administration and public enlightenment.
It is also essential at the planning stage to discuss and
agree upon how the outcomes of the programme will be
evaluated.
(b) Formation of the School Guidance team/committee
An important aspect of the planning stage is the formation
of the guidance implementation committee in the school.
The committee should have the representatives of the
administration, staff, other school functionaries and
students as members. The school counsellor should serve
as the secretary of the committee. Among other things,
the committee has the following roles and responsibilities:
.
Determining the resources/facilities to be used for
the programme;
Outlining/determining the objectives of the
programme;
Outlining how the programme should be carried
out;
Identifying the essential services to be introduced
and implemented;
Coordinating the programme of activities;
Assigning duties and responsibilities relative to the
(guidance) programme to other school
functionaries;
3.
vii. Giving feedback on the programme;
viii. Evaluating the programme from time to time; and
ix. Carrying out other activities relating to the
programme in the school.
Implementation Stage
The counsellor’s role at this stage is very crucial to the success of
the programme. This is because the counsellor’s leadership,

effectiveness and ability to coordinate the activities of the
programme will to a large extent affect the outcome of the
programme. At this point, the counsellor in conjunction with the
guidance committee will select or agree on the type of services to
be introduced based on the need assessment data. Also, at this
stage, it becomes necessary to plan a time-table of guidance
activities. Among the activities to be implemented in a minimum
programme of guidance services include:
(a) A complete individual inventory
(b) An information service
(c) Individual and group counselling service
(d) Orientation programme
(e) Planning, placement and follow-up service.
Added to this is the need for a summary service card/form in which all
the activities relating to the programme will be stated.
4. Evaluation/Review of the programme
The school guidance programme should be reviewed and
evaluated from time to time. This will help to determine whether
the objectives of the services provided have been achieved or not.
However, it must be stated that the review should involve the
entire school community. The counsellor can use different
techniques such as interview method, observations techniques
and questionnaire method for collecting information from the
participants and beneficiaries of the programme. The information
collected will assist the counsellor to determine whether or not
the objectives of the programme have been achieved.
SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1
1. Identify and discuss the stages involved while planning and
organising school guidance programme.
2. How will you evaluate the school guidance programme?
3.2 Problems affecting the Effective Implementation of
School Guidance Programme in Nigeria
Below are some of the problems affecting the effective implementation
of school guidance programme in the country.
52

(a) Lack of fund;
(b) Lack of facilities;
(c) Lack of information materials and psychological tests;
(d) Lack of cooperation from other school personnel;
(e)
(f)
Rivalry among the school functionaries;
Shortage of personnel;
(g) Ignorance and lack of adequate understanding of the importance
of guidance in Nigeria schools;
(h) Lack of appropriate definition of the philosophy upon which
guidance should be based; and
(i) Inconsistent policy on guidance and counselling.
3.3 Solutions to the Problems
(a) Proper education of the public on the role of guidance in the
schools;
(b) Government should provide adequate fund for guidance
programme in schools;
(c) Minimum physical facilities should be provided;
(d) Development of indigenous psychological tests should be
encouraged;
(e) Adjusting teacher education programme to include training in the
basic skills of counselling;
(f) Training of more counsellors; and
(g) Need for consistency in the formulation of policy on school
guidance.
4.0 CONCLUSION
An important aspect in the organisation and administration of school
guidance is the need to plan the programme of action. In other words, it
is necessary to decide the strategy to be used before any programme of
guidance can be introduced. Planning essentially involves deciding in
advance what is to be done and how to accomplish the task. Therefore,
a counsellor must be armed with adequate data on the type of
programme to be introduced in the school before embarking on such a
venture.

5.0 SUMMARY
This unit has showed that functional school guidance requires a proper
planning and the fact that it is important that Counsellor should be
armed with adequate data on the type of programme to be introduced in
the school setting. Different types of planning divisions are discussed. It
is revealed that lack of funds, facilities, rivalries among school
functionaries and lack of cooperation among school personnel are the
problems that always militate against good school guidance programme.
6.0 TUTOR MARKED ASSIGNMENT
Write on eight problems affecting the practice of guidance services in
the Nigeria school system and proffer solutions to the problems
7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS
Ipaye, B. (1995). Guidance and Counselling in Nigerian Schools.
Chayoobi Printers and Publishers. 28 Olaniyi Street, Pedro,
Lagos, Nigeria.
Odediran, N.O (1995). Guidance and Counselling Nigerian School
Counsellors. Nato Publicity and Printing Co. 48 Taiwo Road,
Ilorin.
Umoh, S.H (1998). The Need for Guidance and Counselling in the
Nigerian Educational System. In Idowu, A.I; Guidance and
Counselling in Education.Indemac Nigeria Publishers Ltd,
Ibrahim Taiwo, Ilorin.

MODULE
UNIT 1
Records and Record Keeping in School Guidance
Programme
Process and Techniques in Counselling
Techniques of Counselling
Group Dynamic Process in Counselling
Continuous Assessment in Schools
Historical and Theoretical Development of Vocational
Guidance
Collection, Planning and Dissemination of Career
Information
RECORDS AND RECORD KEEPING IN
SCHOOL GUIDANCE PROGRAMME
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Types of School Records
3.2 Qualities of Good Record
3.3 Use of Records
3.4 Access to Records
4.0 Conclusion
50 Summary
6.0 Tutor Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Readings
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Records and record keeping is considered to be very important in the
school guidance programme. It is one of the functions of the Counsellor
which involves the collection, collation and filling of information about
events occurring in the life of an individual. Principally, records help
the counselor to obtain reliable and useful information about students
when these are needed to offer him/her any form of assistance in the
school. Proper record keeping helps the school authority and in taking
vital decision on students. It is also a good ground that helps to justify
or validate decisions in the school.

2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this Unit, you should be able to do the following:
(a) list at least five different types of school records;
(b) mention five uses of the school records.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Types of School Records

The cumulative record folder
The cumulative record folder is the most important single record
which provides for the recording of important data on the student.
It serves as the depository for all other record sheets and record
data which are regarded as pertinent to the student’s welfare.
Report Sheets/Card
This record is mainly for recording the student’s scores in the
various tests, assignments, projects etc. as well as marks obtained
in the end of term examinations. It shows in a summary form,
the student’s academic performance during the term/year.
The Transcript
This is another important record. It contains the overall summary
of the student’s performance and behavioural ratings for the
entire period of his stay in the school. It is issued at the end of
the student’s course or if he/she is transferring to another school.
While some universities in Nigeria issue transcript to students
every session, other universities issue it at the end of the
programme and not directly to students. On application by
student, such transcript is sent directly to Admission Officers
with warning that students should not see it.
Health Record
This record provides information about the student’s health,
physical appearance and fitness.
5. Attendance Record
It is an information record on students’ attendance to class. It
also provides information on punctuality.
3.2 Qualities of good Records
On a general basis, the following are some of the elements basic to any
record devised either for routine class work or for purposes of
continuous assessment.
(a) A good record must be easy to keep. Recording and maintaining
the record should take the barest minimum of a teacher’s time.
(b) A good record must fulfill a specific task and still be informative
years later when it is reconsidered or consulted.
(c) The record should be based on knowledge and procedures which
are common to all teachers or which could be explained to
teachers effectively well within a short period. This means that a
good record should be simple to understand. No matter how well
kept a record is, if it is based on an obscure system or on a secret
coding system, it will be of no help when a child transfers from
one school to another.
(d) A record should be constructive, i.e. it should provide enough
detail about a child – his strengths and weaknesses
(behaviourally), socially, cognitively etc.) for a balanced
judgment to be made by another teacher or user of the recorded
information/data.

A good record, as much as possible, should be versatile i.e. where
possible; it should serve more than one purpose. A record which
serves two or more functions saves time and sometimes energy.
Every record kept must have a purpose, thus ensuring that the
record performs a specific function in the future.
(g) A good record should be cross indexed i.e. any overall record
should provide some means whereby, quick reference can be
made in terms of obtaining more detailed information as to how
conclusions were drawn. Specifically therefore, where there is a
general, overall record in a school, individual records should also
be available.

3.3 Use of Records
(a) School records provide reliable information about students as
he/she progresses through school.
(b) Data from the records can be used by the Counsellor to help
students adjust o the situation in the school thereby facilitating
learning.
(c) Records can be used to assist students to understand themselves,
in terms of their physical, intellectual and social development.
(d) Teachers, parents and significant others could also understand the
student through the information contained in school records like
cumulative record.
(e) Information in school records can help students to make realistic
decisions about their future.
(f) School records also provide information about the extent to
which the school and its function arises is meeting the needs
of the students.
(g) It is s a reference point when there is need to make referral about
a student who is transferring from one school to another.
3.4 Access to Records
Privacy of students’ records should be part of the legislation that schools
must abide with. As this privacy is guarded, it is important to know the
members of the society that should have access to the records and the
information therein. For example, in the United States of America, the
Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act of 1974 give parents the
right to review the official cumulative folder of the child. Parents or
legal guardians are also given the right to inquire about and even
challenge any information in the child’s folder. They could also
question the information if they think it is inaccurate, misleading or even
inappropriate. According to Onna (1979), outside the parents and
professional school personnel, permanent records are not open to others
except by the order of the Court.
SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
What are the uses of records in the school system?

ANSWERS TO SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1
See pages 55and 56 above
4.0 CONCLUSION
Records and record keeping is in no small way an important component
of the school programme. If records are kept properly just as it will
contribute to developing individual learners, schools will also be able to
recognise their areas of inadequacy take care of them and improve on
their areas of strength which will enhance the general progress of the
schools.
5.0 SUMMARY
Knowledge of records and record keeping entails understanding the
meaning, types, qualities, uses and who should have access to the
records. If records are properly kept and corresponding level of privacy
observed, they can be used in a tremendous way to create and sustain
good image for the schools in Nigeria apart from other receive which
individual learners would benefit from them.
SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2
(a) What are records?
(b) Mention five qualities of a good record.
(c) Name three groups of people that are qualified to access school
records.
6.0 TUTOR-MARKED SELF ASSIGNMENT
Mention five ways by which school records can be used to create and
sustain good image for the University.
7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS
Ipaye, T. (1982). Continuous assessment in schools (with some
counseling applications). Ilorin University Press: University
of Ilorin. Ilorin.
Oana K. (1979) Opportunities in Counselling and Guidance. Oana, K.
Illinois. VCM career Horizons.

Yoloye et al (1981). Handbook on Continuous Assessment. Lagos
Ministry of Education.

UNIT 2

PROCESS AND TECHNIQUES IN
COUNSELLING
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Counselling Process
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor – Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Readings
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Counselling process is the procedure and ways by which clients’
problems are worked through. It is the procedure, which both the
Counsellor and the client go through as they seek to find solution to the
problem of the client. Counselling process is therefore systematic and
procedural since it is one stage of solution finding that leads to the other
and so, it is not a one shot or single snap exercise. Proper counselling
therefore involves careful step-by-step encounter to reach the stage
when the client will feel satisfied and the counsellor feel accomplished
that counselling services have been properly rendered.
In this Unit, you will be taken through each aspect of this Counselling
process. Recognition of each aspect of the process will show how one
leads to the other.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
By the end of this Unit, you should be able to:
(1) Define Counselling process.
(2) Identify each state of Counselling process.
(3) Describe each stage of Counselling process.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Counselling Process
The Counselling process is made up of four basic phases. Regardless of
the type of client, client’s problem or nature of Counselling, the process
of counselling is basic and the same. The four basic phases are:
(a) Initial phase;
(b) Working phase;
(c) Termination phase; and
(d) Follow-up phase.
Initial Phase
The initial phase is the same thing as preparatory or preparation stage.
Essentially it involves all the activities during the first meeting between
the Counsellor and the client. This phase is important because it is at
this stage that the client presents the problem, which necessitated the
counselling encounter. An important factor or an essential ingredient in
the stage is the readiness of the client to want to present his/her problem.
Similarly, the nature of the problem and the client’s personality are
important for the initial phase to take place. Sometimes in order to
facilitate a quick take-off in this phase, the Counsellor may start by
welcoming the client and state why he was sent for (referral) i.e. your
teacher sent a note to me that we (the counsellor and client) should
discuss about your poor performance in Mathematics. If the client came
on his own, the counsellor start by welcoming him/her, and introduce
each other. He/she will then find out why the client is interested in
seeing him/her.
The initial phase is strictly for familiarization, problem presentation and
awareness of the existence of the problem by the counsellor and the
client. It is not the stage where problem is discussed or solved.
Working Phase
Immediately after the initial phase during which counselling relationship
has been established with an understanding that a problem to be
discussed is in existence, then follows the working phase. The working
phase is the problem discussion stage. In this phase, the counsellor
assists the client to work through their feelings as they discuss their
concern. Here, good techniques and professional skills must be used by
the Counsellor as the client works through his/her problem to enable
them gain better insights into them.

In this phase, the client should be able to gain better insight into his
problem, understand various and alternative course of actions to be
taken and take positive actions to solve his problems. Both the client
and the counsellor may have an assignment to carryout in respect of the
problem being discussed before the next phase. For example, the
assignment may be to visit the parent, an industry, employment agency,
an examination office or the teacher handling a particular subject that is
constituting a problem for the client. Each person is however expected
to give a feedback during the next session. The essence of the given
assignments is to gather sufficient information or data that will enhance
smooth transition into the next phase and ensure that a sound bases for
the next stage is created.
Termination Stage
The termination stage marks the end of counselling process. This stage
is necessitated:

When client’s problem have been successfully discussed and
resolved;
When client has been referred to another professional counsellor;
and
Due to client’s lack of apparent problems.
Follow-Up Phase
This is about the last stage in the Counselling process. The Counsellor
must have told the client during termination stage to keep in touch with
him. Specifically, follow-up phase is a counselling activity in which the
counsellor finds out whether the acquired behaviour by the client during
the counselling session is maintained or not and whether the client has
been able to solve his problem or not. As follow-up, the counsellor can
visit the client to have dialogue on how his new behaviour has been
maintained or has been helpful in his adjustment process. Peradventure
there is no improvement observed in the client, reassessment of the
problem can be done through exploration and new goals mapped out as
they both go over through the counselling process all over again.
4.0 CONCLUSION
The counselling process could be very effective in solving client’s
problem if the various stages/phases are carefully observed and followed
without necessarily rushing to take decisions that may make clients to
repeat or that may not work out well for the client.

5.0 SUMMARY
It was identified in this Unit that Counselling process is a procedure in
which counsellors and clients need to follow carefully and with
commitment in order to help the clients go through his problem
effectively. The phases enumerated were the initial phase, working
phase, termination phase and the follow-up. Each phase was mentioned
to be very important in the counselling process without which successful
counselling may not be achieved.
SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

List those things that need careful consideration when setting up
the Counselling Room to meet the client.
Write down what you could say to a client when the session is
nearing an end?
6.0 TUTOR MARKED ASSIGNMENT
(1) State how each phase of the Counselling process is linked up with
the others.
7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS
Margret, H (1996). Counselling Skills. Addison Wesley Longman
Limited Edinburgh House, Harlow Essex CM20 2JE, England.
Okabia O. C (1992). Practicum in Counselling: Training and
Supervision. Hallman Publishers, P. O. Box 227, Nsukka.

UNIT 3

TECHNIQUES OF COUNSELLING
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Techniques in Counselling
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
Self Assessment Exercise
6.0 Tutor Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Readings
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Technique can be defined as methods or ways of doing something or
performing an act efficiently. Another word which carries similar
meaning with technique is strategy that the Counsellor uses in a
counselling encounter. Techniques are usefully acquired through
training by the professional Counsellor to assist their clients understand
and solve their daily problems. It is therefore basic that the acquisition
and use of techniques in counselling helps to distinguish a professional
Counsellor from someone who is not trained but who tries to practice
counselling.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this Unit, you should be able to:
State the meaning of Techniques in Counselling.
Mention five examples of Counselling techniques.
Mention at least one example on how each stated Counselling
technique can be applied.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Techniques in Counselling
There are as many examples of Counselling technique as there are
approaches or theories in Counselling. Examples of some of the
approaches are psychoanalysis, Behaviour modification, Rational
Emotive Therapy, Transactional Analysis, Gestalt, Logo therapy,
Reality Impressive, Client-cantered, Adlerian and Trait and Factor.
While each of these approaches is unique and therefore distinguishable
from the others, there still exists relationship among them because they
are all tended towards helping the clients to understand himself and lead
a well adjusted life. It is therefore the technique in each of the
approaches that often shows which of the approaches is being employed
in practice. However, there are some techniques that cut across some
counselling approaches.
Generally, examples of counselling techniques are listening, responding,
emphasizing, questioning, prodding, interpretation, reflection,
confronting, restatement, probing, self-disclosure, catharsis, assuring,
immediacy, encouraging, clarifying, concretising, summarising,
homework, silence homework, catharses and exploring some of the
major techniques are discussed below:
Listening: Listening is a very crucial technique in the counselling
relationship. It involves every part of the body i.e. eyes, voice, ears and
hears. Listening is often regarded as the foundation stone upon which
other lards of helping service are built. Active listening conveys to chats
that they are valued by the counsellor. If the counsellor does not listen
attentively, he may not be able to hear and understand what his client’s
problems are and observe the exact nature of both the verbal and nonverbal
responses by his client. Adedipe (1997) states that listening is far
from the passive state which some people think it to be. Active listening
is a skill of great sophistication, which is available to all counsellors.
The use of listening as a technique means being able to communicate
understanding of the client’s problems, meaning content. Similarly, it
means being able to show to the client that you understand how he feels
particularly to show the client that you have an idea of the impact of the
existing problems on his psychological well - being.
Responding: This is a technique of counselling that involves the
counsellor’s verbal and non-verbal reactions to the problems presented
by the client. Responding is very crucial in the helping relationship. It
is important to mention that adequate response depends on the
counsellor’s attentive and understanding skills. It is important for the
counsellor to respond promptly and adequately to the client’s verbal and
non-verbal communications. With appropriate and useful response, it is
likely that the client would be able to get help in understanding his
problems and be able to take positive actions towards the solution of his
problems. It is essential that counsellors should be able to respond to

the contents feeling and the meaning of the client’s expression if he, the
counsellor would provide effective assistance to the client.
Questioning: This technique helps the Counsellor in probing and
thereby explores the problem being presented by the client. It helps to
bring to fore, some important fact that will assist in promoting an
effective discussion in the interpersonal relationship between the client
and the counsellor. Questioning readily helps the client in identifying
and having clearer understanding of his problem.
Restatement: This involves a process in which the Counsellor having
heard and understood what the client said, he (the Counsellor) repeats
what was said for the sake of clarification. Specifically, restatement
assists the counsellor and the client to reach a lard of mutual
understanding of true nature of the problem as it represents the mind of
the client. It also affords the client the opportunity of explaining further
if what he said was not properly heard or understood by the counsellor.
When the counsellor restates the client’s problem, the client is thereby
reassured of the counsellor’s attentiveness and ability to follow with the
client’s explanation. According to Adedipe (1997), he opines that,
although it is important for the counsellor to maintain a listening role,
there are certain kinds of responses which communicate not only that,
the counsellor is listening, but also that the counsellor is a person with
an active role. The restatement is one of these responses. An example
is the following interaction:
Client: “I don’t know whether to stay in school or to drop out and
get a job but if I do, I don’t know what kind of job I can
find”
Counsellor: “You are wandering whether to stay in school or to drop
out and work;
Assuring: Assuring as a counselling technique, demands that a
counsellor makes a conscious effort to gain the client’s confidence in the
process of assisting him to solve his (client’s) problem. The counsellor
exhibits a personal quality, which makes the client to trust and rely on
the counsellor as a worthy provider of assistance that can solve his
problem.
Silence: This technique involves sudden cessation or suspension of
sound by both the counsellor and the client temporarily. It is important
for the counsellor to know the appropriate time and way of using silence
if not it can be mistaken for his inability of knowing what to say. In
case the counsellor does not know a lot to say when silence is applied,
he could make statements such as:
You must be deeply touched by your problems.
Are you thinking of a better way to state your problems?
You are not sure; you should discuss certain aspect of your problem
with me.
These statements will enable the client to know that you are still in the
process of helping him to follow through his problem.
Self-disclosure: This technique refers to the act of making known
someone’s feelings/reactions or uncovering someone’s feelings or
reactions to situations or persons. Such feelings are of course secret
until they are made known. A counsellor who uses self-disclosure will
definitely make known his feelings and reactions to his client’s
presentations. It is, however, important to note that such feelings that
are made known must be genuine, sincere and authentic. The use of
self-disclosure also demands that the counsellor must have understood
his client and in fact gained his confidence in their interpersonal
relationship. This is because if the counsellor disclosed his genuine
feelings upon first contact with client, the client may withdraw from
counselling session. But if he understands the client, and the client has
developed trust in him, then self-disclosure will serve its functions in
helping the client to develop:
(a) develop appropriate honest behaviour;
(b) Complete counselling relationship.
When a Counsellor is genuine and transparent in his interaction with the
client, he could be:
(a) seen as a model to the client who also learn to imbibe the
counsellor’s behaviour;
(b) able to succeed in expending less energy in withholding his real
self;
(c) able to provide a conducive and facilitating environment for
himself and the client.
Both the client and the counsellor are therefore able to feel very free in
their discussion. Where the client is initially reluctant, a good use of
self-disclosure by the counsellor would help the client express his
problem fully. An example of self-disclosure is when the counsellor
ways “I have heard similar problem before and it was resolved”.

4.0 CONCLUSION
The use of counselling technique has been identified to be sine-qua-non
to the practice of counselling. It is therefore important to note that
professional counsellors must always be equipped with the appropriate
use of counselling technique in a counselling process.
5.0 SUMMARY
The term counselling technique was defined as the method, which is
adopted by the counsellor to carryout effective counselling. Reasons
why technique are needed were stated with some examples of technique
and how they can be used by the counsellor help the client solve his
problem and be adjusted to life.
SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
(a) What are the necessary conditions for counseling process?
(b) Mention two reasons why counselling technique is important in a
counselling encounter.
6.0 TUTOR MARKED ASSIGNMENT
(1) Write an explanatory note on counseling technique.
7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS
Adedipe, V.O. (1997). Counselling Practicum, International Publishers
Limited. Johnson, D. W (1972). Reaching Out: Interpersonal
Effectiveness and Self- Actualization Condon. Prentice-Hall
International Inc.
Pietrosfessa J. J (1978) Counselling: Theory Research and Practice.
Rand Mc Nally College Pub. Co.
Super, D.E. and P.L. Overstreet (1960). The Vocational Maturity of
Ninth Grade Boys. Teachers College Press. New York

UNIT 4
GROUP DYNAMIC PROCESS IN
COUNSELLING
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Group Dynamic Process in Counselling
3.2 Advantages of Group Dynamic Process
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor – Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Readings
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Efficiently organisd school guidance programmes do not rely solely on
the one-to-one counsellng relationship in assisting students to selforganise
optimally for successful development. Integrated into the total
guidance programme are a variety of group experiences on a one-toseveral
or one-to-many basis. In group counselling, one counsellor is
involved in a relationship with a number of clients at the same time.
The number of clients that can constitute group counselling encounter
span between four to twelve clients; though the most acceptable number
is often six or eight. The utilization of group procedures in guidance is
anchored in the commonality of the developmental tasks
characteristically encountered in certain periods of life.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this Unit, you should be able to:

State the meaning of Techniques in Counselling.
Mention five examples of Counselling techniques.
Mention at least one example on how each stated Counselling
technique can be applied.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Group Dynamic Process in Counselling
Group counselling process is developmental because the group work
transit from one stage to the other until the group is ended. Specifically,
the group process starts from the initial phase to work; termination and
then follow up phase. The essentials of each phase are stated below:
Initial Phase
At this stage of group counselling, the Counsellor introduces himself by
name, occupation and his mission in the meeting. He also states to
members about confidentiality and that he expects everyone to keep
secret whatever is discussed in the group. The members are also
encouraged to appreciate the essence of observing confidentiality by
mentioning the punishment to be meted out to individuals who commit
the offence of divulging the group’s secrets.
Then the members of the group introduce themselves, their names, their
programme, work, marital status, number of children and then major
things they like best and those they dislike most. After this, the
counsellor states to them, the purpose of meeting and informs the
members that they all have similar problems. The counsellor and the
clients then fix the meeting schedules. They also formulate the ground
rules e.g. nobody outside the group should have knowledge of what goes
on, in the group, there should be respect for one another, and no one
should make fun of any other person etc. The counsellor summarizes
the session’s discussion.
Working Phase
It is during this stage that the members introduce their problems while
others listen attentively. After each member has introduced his problem,
members are guided to ask questions where necessary. They are also
guided to help each other to understand their problems. Goals are then
set for each member based on the problems stated. There could be
conflicts and a development of group within the group during sessions.
The counsellor should take note of this and take control so as to be able
to achieve the set goals. The working phase can last for several sessions
with about one hour in each session.
Summary of the group activity in the session is made and stated to the
members. In the absence of further discussion, the session could end.
The counsellor also states to the members that the group encounter was
71
EDU 724 FUNDAMENTALS OF GUIDANCE AND COUNSELLING
already going towards the termination stage. Members are encouraged
to mention the impact of the group work on their studios and adjustment
generally. Assignments are given to group members and feedback
expected at the next session. Sometimes, some members are either
asked to assist other members to work through their problems in
counselling or in-between counselling sessions, some members
volunteer to assist others in this direction.
Termination Phase
This is the stage in which group counselling comes to an end principally
because:
(a) Most issues have been discussed;
(b) The goals set have been achieved; and
(c) Necessary steps have been taken to refer some difficult cases to
the appropriate professional who is competent enough to assist
such clients.
It is essential to mention that all the assignments and homework given in
the group must have been submitted before termination is effected.
Follow-Up Phase
This is an important phase in the group dynamic process in which effort
is made by the counsellor to follow-up with all the decisions or
resolutions arrived at by the group members. This is essential because it
is follow-up activity that will help detect and reveal those clients who
still needed assistance. The assistance may demand a re-assessment of
the problem. It can sometimes necessitate arranging for an individual
counselling; where the group meeting cannot be re-convened.
3.2 Advantages of Group Dynamic Process
The following are some benefits that can be derived when group
procedural method is employed in counselling:

Limited number of available counsellors in the immediate
environment makes delivery of counselling services very
effective.
It provides an economic use of the counsellor’s time when
compared with individual counselling.
.
Clients are able to use group members’ interaction to understand
and accept their problems, values and goals.
Group members learn and unlearn certain attitudes and
behaviours.
Group work provides client with the opportunity to develop
positive and natural relationship with others.
Those who require assistance in identifying and clarifying their
problems benefit a lot from the group counselling encounter.
It provides the facilities for confidence building.
4.0 CONCLUSION
The group counselling process can be very useful approach to rendering
counselling services to many clients at the same time particularly where
there are few professional counsellors on ground. It is however
important to state that counsellors who are engaged in a group process
must always be sensitive to every bit of group activity if not it can easily
be rowdy without being able to achieve the stated goals in the group.
5.0 SUMMARY
The meaning of the concept of group counselling shows that, group
process is procedural and developmental. Each stage of the group work
is essential and must be observed. Members of the group are also to be
encouraged to participate in group work so as to be able to derive the
benefits that abound in the adoption of group dynamic process for
assisting help-seeking clients.
SELF -ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

What stages exist in group counseling and what techniques and
considerations are important at each stage?
How do we make a distinction between group guidance and
group counselling?
6.0 TUTOR MARKED ASSIGNMENT
(1) How can we use group counsellng methods in our schools?

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS
Alao, A. A (1983). Group Counselling in U. Uba (Ed) Introduction to ,
Ile – Ife: University of Ife Press 4761.
Okobia, O. C (1978), Practicum in Counselling, Training and
Supervision. Hallman Publishers P. O. Box 227, Nsukka.

UNIT 5
CONTINUOUS ASSESSMENT IN SCHOOLS
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Methods of Continuous Assessment
3.2 Uses of Continuous Assessment
3.3 Problems of Continuous Assessment
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor – Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Readings
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Continuous assessment as a concept means periodic assessment of
students’ academic achievement with the basic aim of providing a
reliable feedback to the students and to identify weaknesses and areas of
learning difficulties, which could be remedied. It also means a method
of evaluating the progress and achievement of students’ educational
institutions. It therefore aims to get the truest possible picture of each
student’s ability, at the same time helping each student develop his or
her abilities to the fullest.
With continuous assessment as a technique, the final grading of students
in the cognitive, affective and psychomotor domains of behaviour
systematically takes account of all his/her performances during a given
period of schooling. This enables the school make objective decisions
or judgments on his/her cognitive, affective and psychomotor domains.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this Unit, youould be able to:

State, in a sentence, what Continuous Assessment in Schools
means.
Mention three methods of getting Continuous Assessment.
State five uses of Continuous Assessment scores.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Methods of Continuous Assessment
The three domains of educational objectives would be the area of
concentration in discussing the methods of continuous assessment. The
three domains are: cognitive, affective and psychomotor domains. This
is principally because educational attainment objectives are usually
classified into:
(a) Cognitive domain deals with rational, intellectual thought
processes and is concerned with knowledge outcomes,
information intellectual skills and liabilities. The method of
assessing the cognitive domain are:
(i) Paper and paper test
(ii) Oral discussions
(iii) Questioning
(iv) Written assignments
(v) Projects
(b) Affective domain lays emphasis on attitudes, interest, values,
appreciations, feelings and emotions including modes of
adjustment as well as attendance and punctuality to classes.
Method of gathering information on/about a student in the
affective domain are:
(i) Questionnaire
(ii) Oral interview/discussion
(iii) Inventories
(iv) Observation
(c)

Psychomotor is concerned with muscular and motor skills
including the manipulation of materials requiring the eye and
hand coordination with body movements. Observation is
basically the most effective method for assessing students in the
area of psychomotor domain. Specifically, observation schedule
is prepared to address particular area of assessment. For
example, in a typical classroom situation, a teacher may want to
observe how students handle the pencil, his writing and drawing.
In the Science Laboratory, the teacher could want to know
students that use chemicals, intro technological materials wood,
metal work, typing with speed and accuracy. The summary of
the number of times a particular behaviour was exhibited.
Generally, proper record of observation exercise must be
correctly and sincerely kept.

As these various methods (tools) are used in gathering information in
continuous assessment, it would be possible to have good and reliable
representation of the periodic academic record of the student
performance in each course or subject area.
Role of teachers in the practice of continuous assessment in schools
demand that any teacher that is put in charge of assessment or record of
it must be able to:

Combine all relevant scores from tests, homework projects and
examinations to obtain an overall score for a given period.
Keep in close watch and assess the personality development of
each student in such traits as:
(i) Character;
(ii) Temperament;
(iii) Interest;
(iv) Attitude; and
(v) Adjustment.
Obtain information concerning students’ learning and personality
characteristics, which should be used for both academic and
psychological advertisement of the student.
Convert raw scores to more meaningful scores for both academic
and psychological advice for the students.
Give appropriate weights to the scores from different sources.
Combine scores from different measures to get an overall score.
Possess skills in interpreting scores from assessment instrument.
Possess skills in keeping records and preparing reports.
3.1 Uses of Continuous Assessment
Continuous assessment can be very useful in the following ways:
1. Enables the teacher give periodic assessment of the child
throughout the course in the cognitive, affective and
psychomotor domains.

Provides the truest and most comprehensive picture of each
student’s ability in a school setting than could be got from a
single examination.
Serves as a monitoring device giving feedback to the pupils about
his/her performance and also to the teacher about effectiveness of
his teaching.
Provides information on the strengths and weaknesses of students
with a view to applying immediate corrective measures.
Provides reliable information about students on the basis of
which guidance services can be rendered by the teacher and the
school counsellor.
3.3 Problems of Continuous Assessment
Operation of continuous assessment can be linked with problems in the
following areas:

Use of different standards of measuring performance from school
to school.
Transfer among students from school to school.
Task of operating continuous assessment without appropriate
remuneration to the teachers.
Insufficient provision of materials and the financial cost of
applying continuous assessment procedures.
Poor teacher and teaching qualities in schools.
Lack of standardization of most continuous assessment tests and
grades.
4.0 CONCLUSION
There is no doubt that Continuous Assessment is a better form of
gathering reliable information on the educational attainment of students
in schools rather than just using a single shot examination. It is however
important to state that for Continuous Assessment scores to serve the
purpose it is meant, no aspect of its

5.0 SUMMARY
It was mentioned in this unit that every aspect of the knowledge of
continuous assessment in school is important for practitioners to be able
to operate it well right from the meaning of the concept Continuous
Assessment, to the methods, the problem, uses and role of the teachers.
A proper understanding of each area of continuous assessment will help
both the teacher and the student and will also make learning more
practical and meaningful while scores obtained in respect of each
student would be more reliable. Problems mentioned in the unit for the
operations of continuous assessment are important for the stakeholders
to consider so that there can always be an improvement with the way
continuous assessment is operated in the Schools.
SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
.
What is Continuous Assessment?
Mention five methods by which Continuous Assessment can be
obtained.
State five reasons why Continuous Assessment is preferable to
the one single shot examination.
6.0 TUTOR MARKED ASSIGNMENT
(1) State five reasons why Continuous Assessment is preferable to
the one single shot examination of determining students’
academic performance.
7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS
Bloom, B. S (1956). Taxonomy of Educational Objectives Handbook 1:
Cognitive Domain: New York Mackey.
Ipaye, T. (1985). An evaluation of Continuous Assessment in Schools.
Education Today 1, 49 - 53.

UNIT 6

HISTORICAL AND THEORETICAL
DEVELOPMENT OF VOCATIONAL
GUIDANCE
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Historical developments of Vocational Guidance in
Nigeria
3.2 Theoretical development of Vocational Guidance
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Readings
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Vocational Guidance is a very crucial aspect of the help giving service
(Guidance and Counselling). This is because it is concerned with
assisting people to gain awareness, acquire knowledge and be led to
enjoy placement in the world of work. Knowledge of Vocational
Guidance is needed by everybody particularly because of the role of
work in a person’s life. For instance, it is work one does that determines
a person’s social status, income, lifestyle, choice of friends, with mental
and physical well being. Put in a clear term, vocational guidance is
therefore the process of helping a person match his personal attributes
and his background with suitable jobs and employment opportunities.
Most adults of over 40 years of age attest to the fact that they had little
or no opportunity while in school to assess their personal, self
characteristics or to plan ways by which their values and goals could be
achieved in life. This unwarranted development should not only be
discouraged but it should be continually prevented through a sound
vocational guidance programmes properly entrenched in the school daily
activities. Knowledge of the vocational guidance is very necessary
because, Nigeria is presently facing:
(a) Increase in unemployment of school learners.
(b) Shortage of manpower in different sectors of the economy.
(c) Unutilization of potentials in the country.
(d) Vocational maladjustment among youths.
(e)

Unending influence of parents on choice of career.

All these issues are problems, which bedevil the vocational life of
Nigerians but which activities of Counsellors and teachers alike can help
to prevent in the schools. In particular, proper planning and designing
of activities and services will help facilitate the career development
needs of the students.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this Unit, you should be able to do the following:
(a) Mention at least five stages in the historical development of
vocational guidance in Nigeria.
(b) Enumerate three stages in the theory of vocational development.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Historical Development of Vocational Guidance in
Nigeria
Common observation of the reminiscence of the traditional system of
guidance in Nigeria will reveal that before the advent of western
education, formal guidance has been part of our traditional customary
practices in Nigeria. Within the Nigerian context, there are so many
agencies of guidance and counselling such as: the family, the elders, the
clan heads or leaders, the religious leaders and priests. All these people
provided some form of rudimentary Guidance and Counselling
assistance; particularly in the area of choice of vocation. Whether the
arrangement was good enough or not, the system was the only option
Nigerians had access to.
The first known indication of vocational guidance in Nigerian school
was in form of the concern some humanitarian Catholic Reverend
Sisters had for young Nigerian secondary school pupils who are about to
graduate were experiencing difficulty in finding the right jobs and in
achieving vocational maturity. In 1959, the Reverend Sisters of Saint
Theresa’s College, Ibadan invited twenty people from different
occupations and professions in and around Ibadan to talk to the students
about work life and the possibilities of absorbing the students after
graduation. Following this was the formation of Ibadan Careers Council
and Guidance Services to other schools in and around Ibadan.
In 1963, the Ibadan Careers Council metamorphosed to Nigeria Career
Council with the principle of widening her services to cover other
schools in Nigeria. This Council also launched a Newsletter called

CAREERS aimed at providing adequate information on vocational
guidance to career masters and mistresses in schools.
Similarly, Aiyetoro Comprehensive High School (a government school
aided by USAID) in 1963 had a trained Guidance Counsellor on her
staff list. With such a development, school guidance since then was
made to play a number of vocational related services among which are:
The education of staff on the purposes of school guidance.
Gathering of student background information on a more
comprehensive scale.
Assessment of student personality characteristics through the use
of standardisd psychological tests.
Maintenance of cumulative records which contained information
used for streaming promotion, retention or when the student or
his parent wanted it.
Personal counselling for students.
Related to Aiyetoro Comprehensive High School was also established in
Port Harcourt in River State. Within this period, the Olunloyo College
of Education in Ibadan started training careers masters and mistresses
for the Nigerian secondary schools.
By 1977, the place of vocational guidance became entrenched in the first
edition of the National Policy on Education published by the
Federal
Ministry of Education. Principally, this was done to arrest the ignorance
of career prospects and personality maladjustment prevalent among the
school children. By 1973, in the Northern Nigeria, the Institute of
Education of Ahmadu Bello University organizs a four-week in-service
course for guidance teachers and careers masters and mistresses in
particularly, Kaduna State Ministry of Education.
As far back as early 1970s, most Nigerian Universities like University of
Nigeria, Nsukka produced its first Master’s degree students in guidance
and counselling in 1971. By 1972, University of Ife (now Obafemi
Awolowo University) and Ahmadu Bello University started courses in
Guidance and Counselling at their Master’s degree programmes. Today,
many Nigerian Universities do have guidance and counselling as a
specific course in their academic programmes leading to the production
of graduates at first degree, Master’s and even Doctorate level. The
implication is that a wide and far-reaching opportunity is provided for
the training of specialists in the art of rendering vocational counselling
services in the schools.

To cap up this development, the Counselling Association of Nigeria was
born in 1976. This Association is an umbrella body for all trained
personnel in guidance related areas of knowledge. Most of the time, the
association has been responsible for the regulation of members’
activities, promotion and development of vocational guidance in
Nigeria.
3.2 Theoretical Development of Vocational Guidance
There are three basic stages in vocational development. These are:
fantasy, tentative and realistic.

The Fantasy stage refers to the period when one is still daydreaming
about many careers that are attractive to an individual.
At this stage, a person acts like a child who wants to have
everything shown to him/her. It is a period that is filled with
indefinite decision, because vocational decisions taken are
constantly changed. For example, you want to be a doctor today
but by the next day you have changed your mind and so now, you
want to be an engineer. At this stage, decisions are constantly
being changed.
Tentative stage is another stage when the individual begins to
settle down in his vocational development based on the decision
to stick to an attractive vocation. For example, if you are to be in
a fantasy stage and ten vocational areas are opened to you, and
they are all attractive, you may begin to reduce the number using
the principle of preference one after the other until you are left
with few which you still drop to one or two later.
The Realistic stage. It is at this stage that you are regarded to be
matured enough to make a concrete decision on the type of
vocation you feel is good for you. By this stage, all the factors
that affect vocational choice (i.e. ability, interest, aspiration,
parental background and societal needs) have been considered.
You are now convinced that choice of teaching as a vocation is
best for you since you would have considered the type of subjects
taken, training needed and possibility of getting quick
employment. The choice is more realistic at this stage since
proper consideration has been given to the above mentioned
factors. It is important to note that as you transit from one stage
of vocational development to the other, you need to be in
constant counselling interaction with your counsellor who is in a
good position to guide you as you weigh the options that are
opened to you before taking decisions.

4.0 CONCLUSION
There is harmony between the historical and theoretical development of
vocational guidance. As stated in the Unit, the knowledge of the two
aspects will help in understanding and appreciating the essence of the
concept, vocational guidance in the life of students in Nigeria, who will
one day find himself in the world of work.
5.0 SUMMARY
The existence of the traditional approach to vocational guidance before
the advent of western education is more organisd vocational guidance
typifies how vocational development has come a long way. It also
shows that vocational guidance cannot be trivialised in the life of
individuals who are expected to transit to work life and be adjusted. The
characteristics of each stage of vocational development theory also show
that every stage has meaning in the life of individuals.
SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1
Mention five stages in the historical development of Vocational
Guidance in Nigeria.
6.0 TUTOR MARKED ASSIGNMENT
(1) Mention the essential characteristics in each of the three stages of
theoretical development of vocational guidance.
7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS
Chauhan, S. S (1982). Principles and techniques of Guidance. Viices
Publishing House; India.
Bojuwoye, O (1986). Vocational Guidance in T. Ipaye (Ed) Educational
and Vocational Guidance: Concepts and approaches. Ile – Ife.
University of Ife Press.

UNIT 7
COLLECTION, PLANNING AND
DISSEMINATION OF CAREER
INFORMATION
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Meaning of Career
3.2 Collection of Career Information
3.3 Career Planning
3.4 Dissemination of Career Information
3.5 Stages in Career Planning, Collection
Dissemination of
Information
3.6 The use of tests in Career Guidance
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor – Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Readings
1.0 INTRODUCTION
of, and
It is basic that anybody found engaged in a long lasting job called career
would have explanation to give on how he came about joining such a
job. Some people display happiness and contentment while others regret
to find themselves in the particular career either because their goal in the
career cannot be accomplished or for the fact that the demands they have
to meet are incongruent with their expectations and resources. Most
people who are in teaching career often show regret and disappointment
simply for economic reasons whereas members in the law, medical and
engineering profession seems to be happier. It is however a common
knowledge to find lawyers changing to the teaching or pasturing careers
simply because they feel they are not comfortable with the conditions or
demands of their career in law. All these point to the fact that there is a
need to plan, collect and be accessible to relevant information that are
needed before a decision is taken on which career to pursue in life.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this Unit, you should be able to do the following:
1. State the meaning of Career.

2. List two reasons each why it is important to:
(a) plan what to do before taking career decision;
(b) collect relevant information on careers; and
(c) be accessible to source of information on careers.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Meaning of Career
Career is a life long activity. It is a chosen life work or an overall work
one does in a given job in one’s lifetime. Career includes the different
types of work you do as a teacher, the different types of positions you
occupy in teaching throughout your life in teaching. If your career is
teaching, you will find yourself doing other jobs like marking
examination scripts, sporting activities, gardening and prep supervision.
At other times, you occupy the position of class teacher, assistant
headmaster/mistress, headmaster/mistress, NUT official, schools
inspector. All these are part of teaching career.
3.2 Collection of Career Information
It is essential for the counsellor or career master to gather sufficient
facts, possess sound knowledge and ideas about different careers for him
to be able to assist students in their career decision making process. The
two major areas of importance where information is needed for career
guidance are:
(a) Information about self
(b) Information about the career of interest.
Information about Self – i.e. person who wants to choose a career.
Although self assessment is needed by an individual in areas which
include:
(i) Area of his interest;
(ii) The type of person he is. Is he an introvert or extrovert,
aggressive or lovely person? You need to know this.
(iii) The educational background of the person.
(iv) The performance in the school subjects.
All these you need to know about the person for a good career decision
making.

Information about the Career of Interest – You will gather information
on career of interest by considering the following:
(1) Study of occupational information that are available in
publications like:
(a) Periodicals in Ministry of Employment, Labour and
Productivity;
(b) Magazines and books in the National Directorate of
Employment (NDE);
(c) Books, Periodicals and Magazines by Labour
Unions/Associations/Organisations/Institutes such as
Michael Imoudu Institute of Labour Studies;
(d) Business and Commercial Publishers; and
(e) Magazines, newspaper publications on job vacancies.
(2) Use of films, filmstrips, slides, etc. which present occupational
information.
(3) Use of career exploration kits and career games.
(4) Personal visit to employers in the fields of interest.
(5) Interviewing workers in occupations.
(6) Securing part-time or long vacation jobs in occupations of
interest. Scanning newspapers and magazines for information on
occupations.
3.3 Career Planning
Planning is time tabling of how activities will be carried out. In
planning, attention should be paid to material resources that are
available for use in carrying out the plans. In a similar way, one needs
to make a time-table of how he wants to get into the type of work one
intends to do in the future. The planning of the type of work one wants
to do in the future involves acquiring the necessary education needed
and taking the type of subjects to qualify one for the job. It also
involves preparing your mind towards the job. All these are part of
career planning. You should consider the following points while you
are engaged in the career planning exercise:
1.
2.
Quality of education provided by the client’s parent.
Peer-group influence on the client’s life.
Type of school attended i.e. a student who attended a teacher
training college has already been prepared to be a teacher.
Subject combination i.e. a child who wants to be a medical doctor
should offer subjects like physics, chemistry and biology.
Prospect of employment.
Prestige of the career of interest.
Economic gains to be derived from a career. Most people plan
for career that attract high salary while others look for retirement
benefits, allowances, holidays etc.
Safety – Most people prefer careers that involve limited amount
of hazard so that they can live long and in good health. There are
other careers that involve great deal of hazards which can
suddenly terminate life like military, industrial engineering. All
these are important for the counsellor and student clients to
consider in the process of career guidance.
3.4 Dissemination of Career Information
As a counsellor or career master, you should be able to make available,
present, interpret and explain all the facts, ideas and other data already
collected about occupations to the students. This can be done by
considering the following:
Establishment of career resource material centre where career
materials are carefully organised and made available. The Centre
should be composed of:
(a) occupational descriptions;
(b) occupational outlook projections;
(c) post-secondary educational and training information;
(d) apprenticeship and internship information;
(e) information for special populations, and
(f) financial aid information.
Lending to students, all career related materials.
Organisation of career days, field trips, parent conferences, career
club, work study/tour, work experiences and library.
Counselling interview (individual or group) through the use of
audio-visual, tape recorders, overhead projectors, flannel graph
and magnetic board, bulletin board, films and filmstrips, periodic
announcements and career education.

Guidance on choice of appropriate subject combination that is
congruent with choice of particular career of interest.
Provide specific information about each occupation with
reference to:
(a) Definition;
(b) Work performed;
(c) Personal requirements; and
(d) Training opportunities and entry requirements.
3.5 Stages in Career Planning, Collection of and
Dissemination of Information
Three basic areas to be considered here are the fantasy, tentative and
realistic stage.

The Fantasy stage refers to the period when one is still daydreaming
about many careers that are attractive to an individual.
At this stage, a person acts like a child who wants to have
everything shown to him/her. Fantasy stage means that the
individual wants to be a lawyer today, tomorrow it is teaching
career he wants, the next day it is accounting he wants. It is
actually a period of confusion for the individual.
Tentative stage occurs when the individual begins to get settled
down to a career that appeals to him. For example, if in a fantasy
stage he has about 10 careers that appealed to him, at the tentative
stage, he may settle down to consider seriously may be only five
or six. He then begins to plan for these careers, some of them, he
may drop later.
The Realistic stage. At this stage, the individual is mature to
make a concrete decision of the type of career he thinks is good
for him. By this stage, all the factors affecting career planning as
indicated earlier have been considered. The individual is now
convinced that possibly going into teaching career is best for him.
The choice becomes realistic because he would have considered
the type of education he has, the school subjects taken and the
possibility of getting quickly employed.
Every individual in the process of planning, collecting and using
information goes through the above mentioned stages. Any
counselling interaction should be used for assisting clients, after

gathering all the necessary information to enhance career
decision making process.
3.6 The use of Tests in Career Guidance
There is an overwhelming number of tests which may be used in career
guidance. Using a classification, which in various forms has a very long
history; tests can be divided into three main categories, namely: tests of
ability, of personality, and tests of attitudes and interests.
Ability tests can in turn be divided into two main sections, often called
achievement tests and aptitude tests. A distinction between these two, is
often difficult to sustain, but is considered to depend on the idea that
achievement tests are usually of school subjects – English, Mathematics,
Economics and so on and are used after a period of deliberate teaching
of that subject, while aptitude tests are more abstract and aim to test
thought processes and ideas which are common to and generalised from
a wide range of subject and other learning. The intelligence test is the
most widely known type of aptitude test. In all cases, aptitude tests are
used to predict future performance of the person being tested. Tests of
ability have been used very widely in all forms of guidance in schools.
Personality tests have a chequered history in careers guidance. This is
probably due to the very elusive concept of personality, which is usually
taken to mean the relatively constant emotional qualities of a person, his
major needs and drives whether conscious or unconscious. But over and
above, problems of definition, Adedipe (1986) shows that, there has
been extreme difficulty in establishing a clear dependable relation
between any test estimate of personality and a work setting. Perhaps the
most useful type of personality test in careers guidance work is the selfreport
in careers.
Attitude tests in careers have been widely developed; there is a tendency
for such tests to be specific to research problems rather than for general
use. Super and Overstreet (1960) have used such tests in an interesting
way in their study of vocationally maturity.
Interest tests on the other hand have been widely developed. In recent
years, interest tests have been revised and developed in Nigeria. Tests
such as Bakare’s “Vocational Interest Inventory” (VIT), Akinboye’s
“Vocational Interest Data Inventory” (APDI) and Adedipe’s “Self
Evaluation of Vocational Interest (SEVI) are a few examples of tests
used in Nigerian schools. All of these aim at exploring the personal
interests of the client, and comparing the pattern of interests with that of
people in general or with patterns commonly found in occupational
groups.
4.0 CONCLUSION
Career is a life long activity. It is a chosen life work or an overall work
one does in a given job in one’s lifetime. Career includes the different
types of work you do as a teacher, the different types of positions you
occupy in teaching throughout your life in teaching.
5.0 SUMMARY
Choice of career is very important in the life of human beings.
Sometimes, it is the type of career that determines a person’s happiness,
comfort and level of adjustment in the world of today. A person’s social
economic status is also being determined by his career. While choice of
career is important, the process of planning, collecting and
disseminating information is considered to be equally very fundamental
because it is all these areas that will assist the counsellor in helping the
client to take a long lasting and reliable decision on the choice of a
lifelong work. When a careful consideration is given to career planning,
collection and information dissemination it is likely that most people
would be better adjusted to the careers of their choice.
SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1
(1) Mention two reasons why it is important to plan what to do
before taking career decision.
(2) What is Career information dissemination?
6.0 TUTOR MARKED ASSIGNMENT
1 (a) What is the meaning of the concept career?
(b) Mention five reasons for planning, collecting and disseminating
career information.
7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS
Achebe, C. C (1986). Techniques of educational and Vocational
Planning in T. Ipaye (Ed) Educational and Vocational Guidance,
Concepts and Approaches. Ile – Ife: University of Ife Press.
Adedipe, V.O. (1997). Counselling Practicum. Internal Publishers
Limited.

Oladele, J. O (1978) Guidance and Counselling: A fundamental
Approach. Lagos. John Lad Publishers Ltd.

Course Code
Course Title
Course Developers/Writers
Course Editor
Programme Leader
EDU 724
Fundamentals of Guidance and
Counseling
Olugbenga David Ojo,(PhD)
Examinations Unit,
National Open University of Nigeria,
Victoria Island
Lagos.
Dr. Ogidan Rotimi,
Learners Support Services
Department
National Open University of Nigeria,
Victoria Island
Lagos
Professor V. O. Adedipe,
Manager, Akure Study Centre,
National Open University of Nigeria,
Akure
Dr. I. O. Salawu,
School of Education
National Open University of Nigeria
Victoria Island
Lagos
Course Coordinator Dr. Osuji, U.S.A.
School of Education
National Open University of Nigeria
Victoria Island, Lagos.
NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA
EDU 724 FUNDAMENTALS OF GUIDANCE AND COUNSELLING
National Open University of Nigeria
Headquarters
14/16 Ahmadu Bello Way
Victoria Island
Lagos
Abuja Annex
245 Samuel Adesujo Ademulegun Street
Central Business District
Opposite Arewa Suites
Abuja
e-mail: centralinfo@nou.edu.ng
URL: www.nou.edu.ng
National Open University of Nigeria 2006
First Printed 2006
ISBN: 978-058-015-8
All Rights Reserved
Printed by ……………..
For
National Open University of Nigeria
ii
EDU 724 FUNDAMENTALS OF GUIDANCE AND COUNSELLING
TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE
Module 1 ………………………………………………..… 1
Unit 1
Unit 2
Unit 3
Unit 4
Unit 5
Unit 6
Unit 7
Nature of Guidance and Counselling ………. 1 - 9
Principles of Guidance and Counselling …… 9 - 18
Historical Development of Guidance and …..
Counselling ………………………………… 19 - 25
Developmental Problems of Guidance and …
Counselling ………………………………… 26 - 32
Functions of the School Counsellor ………... 33 - 38
Functions of the Major Stakeholders in …….
Guidance and Counselling …………………. 39 - 47
Organisation of Guidance Services ………… 48 -54
Module 2 ………………………………………………..… 55
Records and Record Keeping in School
Guidance Programme ………………………. 55 - 60
Process and Techniques in Counselling ……. 61 - 64
Techniques of Counselling………………….. 65 - 69
Group Dynamic Process in Counselling ……. 70 - 74
Continuous Assessment in Schools …………. 75 - 79
Historical and Theoretical Development of
Vocational Guidance ………………………… 80 - 84
Collection, Planning and Dissemination of …..
Career Information …………………………… 85
MODULE 1
UNIT 1
Nature of Guidance and Counselling
Principles of Guidance and Counselling
Historical Development of Guidance and Counselling
Developmental Problems of Guidance and Counselling
Functions of the School Counsellor
Functions of the Major Stakeholders in Guidance and
Counselling
Organisation of Guidance Services
NATURE OF GUIDANCE AND COUNSELLING
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Definitions
3.1.1 Meaning of Guidance
3.1.2 Meaning of Counselling
3.2 Types of Counselling
3.3 Classification of Counselling
3.4 Approaches to Counselling
3.5 Differences between Guidance and Counselling
3.6 Purposes of Guidance and Counselling
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Readings
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Any worthwhile book on Guidance and Counselling will always discuss
what the nature of the course is all about. These include its routine
definitions, purposes, theories and principles. This will allow project
understanding of the course. This unit will provide the definitions and
meanings of the terms Guidance and Counselling, the purposes and
principles of Guidance and Counselling, the need for it and its functions
in the School system. These will help lay the necessary foundation
about the course.

2.0 OBJECTIVES
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:
(i) Define Guidance and Counselling.
(ii) List the differences between Guidance and Counselling.
(iii) Enumerate the objectives of Guidance and Counselling.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT

DISTINCTION BETWEEN MANAGEMENT AND ADMINISTRATION

DIFFERENTIATE BETWEEN MANAGEMENT AND ADMINISTRATION.
Management can be defined as the art of getting things done through the effort of other people in an organization .
Administration deals with the arrangement of organizational resources both "human and plants" and procedures in other to acheive the intended organization objectives .
     However;Administration Management andadministration may seem the same, but there are differences between the two.
Administration has to do with the setting up of objectives and crucial
policies of every organization. What is understood by management, however, is the act or function of putting into practice
the policies and plans decided upon by the administration. Administration is a determinative function, while management is an executive function. It also follows that administration makes the important decisions of an enterprise in its entirety, whereas management makes the decisions within the confines of the framework, which is set up by the administration.
      Administration is the top level, whereas management is a middle level activity. If one were to decide the status, or position of administration, one would find that it consists of owners who invest the capital, and receive profits from an organization. Management consists of a group of managerial persons, who leverage their specialist skills to fulfill the objectives of an organization.
      Administrators are usually found in government, military, religious and educational organizations. Management is used by business enterprises. The decisions of an administration are shaped by public opinion, government policies, and social and religious factors, whereas management decisions are shaped by the values, opinions and beliefs of the mangers. In administration, the planning and organizing of functions are the key factors, whereas, so far as management is concerned, it involves motivating and controlling functions. When it comes to the type of abilities required by an administrator, one needs administrative qualities, rather than technical qualities. In management, technical abilities and human relation management abilities are crucial. Administration usually handles the business aspects, such as finance . It may be defined as a system of efficiently organizing people and resources, so as to make them successfully pursue and achieve common goals and objectives.
Administration is perhaps both an art and a science. This is because administrators are ultimately judged by their performance. Administration must incorporate both leadership and vision. Management is really a subset of administration, which has to do with the technical and mundane facets of an organization’s operation. It is different from executive or strategic work.            Management deals with the employees.
Administration is above management, and
exercises control over the finance and
licensing of an organization.
Therefore, we can see that these two
terms are distinct from one another, each
with their own set of functions. Both these
functions are crucial, in their own ways,
to the growth of an organization.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN MANAGEMENT AND ADMINISTRATION

Management and
administration may
seem the same, but
there are differences
between the two.
Administration has
to do with the
setting up of objectives and crucial
policies of every organization. What is
understood by management, however, is
the act or function of putting into practice
the policies and plans decided upon by
the administration.
Administration is a determinative
function, while management is an
executive function. It also follows that
administration makes the important
decisions of an enterprise in its entirety,
whereas management makes the
decisions within the confines of the
framework, which is set up by the
administration.
Administration is the top level, whereas
management is a middle level activity. If
one were to decide the status, or position
of administration, one would find that it
consists of owners who invest the capital,
and receive profits from an organization.
Management consists of a group of
managerial persons, who leverage their
specialist skills to fulfill the objectives of
an organization.
Administrators are usually found in
government, military, religious and
educational organizations. Management is
used by business enterprises. The
decisions of an administration are shaped
by public opinion, government policies,
and social and religious factors, whereas
management decisions are shaped by the
values, opinions and beliefs of the
mangers.
In administration, the planning and
organizing of functions are the key
factors, whereas, so far as management is
concerned, it involves motivating and
controlling functions. When it comes to
the type of abilities required by an
administrator, one needs administrative
qualities, rather than technical qualities.
In management, technical abilities and
human relation management abilities are
crucial.
Administration usually handles the
business aspects, such as finance . It may
be defined as a system of efficiently
organizing people and resources, so as to
make them successfully pursue and
achieve common goals and objectives.
Administration is perhaps both an art and
a science. This is because administrators
are ultimately judged by their
performance. Administration must
incorporate both leadership and vision.
Management is really a subset of
administration, which has to do with the
technical and mundane facets of an
organization’s operation. It is different
from executive or strategic work.
Management deals with the employees.
Administration is above management, and
exercises control over the finance and
licensing of an organization.
Therefore, we can see that these two
terms are distinct from one another, each
with their own set of functions. Both these
functions are crucial, in their own ways,
to the growth of an organization.
Summary:
1. Management is the act or function of
putting into practice the policies and
plans decided upon by the
administration.
2. Administration is a determinative
function, while management is an
executive function.
3. Administration makes the important
decisions of an enterprise in its entirety,
whereas management makes the
decisions within the confines of the
framework, which is set up by the
administration.
4. Administrators are mainly found in
government, military, religious and
educational organizations. Management,
on the other hand, is used by business
enterprises.

POVERTY

Poverty simply means being poor, being poor also means being unable to afford food or clean water. The effects of poverty are
often interrelated so that one problem rarely
occurs alone. Bad sanitation makes one
susceptible to diseases, and hunger and lack
of clean water makes one even more
vulnerable to diseases. Impoverished
countries and communities often suffer from
discrimination and end up caught in a cycle of
poverty.
Poverty and Society
The vicious cycle of poverty means that
lifelong barriers and troubles are passed on
from one generation to the
next.Unemployment and low incomes create
an environment where children are unable toThe Grass is NOT Greener!
Too many times, people get tired of working on the relationship they are currently in and feel that by moving on to another person, they will find greener pastures. This is just not the case. What happens is when you move to another person, things are fresh, new, and exciting just as they were in the beginning of your current relationship. Within time, that relationship will also start experiencing differences and bumps in the road. Unless you are being abused or your mate is doing something illegal or completely irresponsible, perhaps the efforts you would put into starting a new relationship would be better spent fixing the one you have.
attend school. Children must often work to
provide an income for their family. As for
children who are able to go to school, many
fail to see how hard work can improve their
lives as they see their parents struggle at
every day tasks. Other plagues accompanying
poverty include:
Crippling accidents as a result of unsafe
work environments—consider the recent
building collapse in Bangladesh.
Poor housing—a long-lasting cause of
diseases.
Water and food related diseases that
occur simply because the poor cannot
afford “safe” foods.
Ultimately, poverty is a major cause of social
tensions and threatens to divide a nation
because of income inequality. This occurs
when the wealth of a country is poorly
distributed among its citizens—when a tiny
minority has a majority of the money. Wealthy
or developed countries maintain stability
because of the presence of a middle class.
However, even Western countries are gradually
losing their middle class. As a result there
has been an increased number of riots and
clashes. For society, poverty is a very
dangerous factor that can destabilize an entire
country. The Arab Spring is a great example
of how revolts can start because of few job
opportunities and high poverty levels.
Child Poverty
The number of children affected by poverty
has been increasing since the 1960s. Children
are those with the least amount choice and
ability to change their circumstances. There is
very little they can do to help their families,
nor should they have to. Usually by the age of
six they can be enrolled in child labor. Nearly
all the potential effects of poverty impact the
lives of children—poor infrastructure,
unemployment, malnutrition, domestic
violence, child labor, and disease. Simply
analyzing the effects of child poverty on
education in developed countries alone reveal
some disturbing statistics:
Children from poor backgrounds lag
behind at all stages of education.
By the age of three, poorer children are
estimated to be nine months behind
children from wealthier backgrounds.
By the end of primary school, students
receiving free school meals are estimated
to be about three terms behind their
peers.
By 14, this gap increases to over five
terms.
By 16, children receiving free school
meals are about 1.7 grade points below
their more affluent peers’ average GPA.
Effects of Poverty and Violence
The effect of poverty on terrorism is not as
straightforward as the media often perceives it
to be. Poverty fuels terrorism by creating a
state of misery and frustration that pushes
people to join terrorist organizations. But
more research shows, it is more complicated.
Of course, some terrorists come from poor
countries with high unemployment, and
terrorist organizations often provide higher
salaries than other jobs. But terrorism may
not be a direct effect of poverty. So what is
the source of frustration and anger?
Studies show that countries with weak
governments, fragile institutions, and limited
civil rights are a great environment to nurture
the production of terrorist activity. Countries
undergoing difficult transitions—i.e. from
authoritarian to democratic regime—often
encounter political instability with the blurring
of certain rules and laws.
These periods of profound change come with
a transformation of social order, values, and
methods of governing that many people may
find distressing and unsettling. Therefore,
stabilizing and empowering political
institutions is a crucial part of fighting against
the dangerous consequences of poverty.

BE STABLE IN YOUR RELATIONSHIP

The Grass is NOT Greener!
Too many times, people get tired of working on the relationship they are currently in and feel that by moving on to another person, they will find greener pastures. This is just not the case. What happens is when you move to another person, things are fresh, new, and exciting just as they were in the beginning of your current relationship. Within time, that relationship will also start experiencing differences and bumps in the road. Unless you are being abused or your mate is doing something illegal or completely irresponsible, perhaps the efforts you would put into starting a new relationship would be better spent fixing the one you have.

ABTRACT WRITING

This handout provides definitions and examples of
the two main types of abstracts: descriptive and
informative. It also provides guidelines for
constructing an abstract and general tips for you to
keep in mind when drafting. Finally, it includes a
few examples of abstracts broken down into their
component parts.
An abstract is a self-contained, short, and powerful
statement that describes a larger work.
Components vary according to discipline. An
abstract of a social science or scientific work may
contain the scope, purpose, results, and contents
of the work. An abstract of a humanities work may
contain the thesis, background, and conclusion of
the larger work. An abstract is not a review, nor
does it evaluate the work being abstracted. While it
contains key words found in the larger work, the
abstract is an original document rather than an
excerpted passage.
You may write an abstract for various reasons.
The two most important are selection and
indexing. Abstracts allow readers who may be
interested in a longer work to quickly decide
whether it is worth their time to read it. Also, many
online databases use abstracts to index larger
works. Therefore, abstracts should contain
keywords and phrases that allow for easy
searching.
Selection
Say you are beginning a research project on how
Brazilian newspapers helped Brazil’s ultra-liberal
president Luiz Ignácio da Silva wrest power from
the traditional, conservative power base. A good
first place to start your research is to search
Dissertation Abstracts International for all
dissertations that deal with the interaction between
newspapers and politics. “Newspapers and
politics” returned 569 hits. A more selective
search of “newspapers and Brazil” returned 22 hits.
That is still a fair number of dissertations. Titles
can sometimes help winnow the field, but many
titles are not very descriptive. For example, one
dissertation is titled “Rhetoric and Riot in Rio de
Janeiro.” It is unclear from the title what this
dissertation has to do with newspapers in Brazil.
One option would be to download or order the
entire dissertation on the chance that it might
speak specifically to the topic. A better option is to
read the abstract. In this case, the abstract reveals
the main focus of the dissertation:
This dissertation examines the role of newspaper
editors in the political turmoil and strife that
characterized late First Empire Rio de Janeiro
(1827-1831). Newspaper editors and their journals
helped change the political culture of late First
Empire Rio de Janeiro by involving the people in
the discussion of state. This change in political
culture is apparent in Emperor Pedro I’s gradual
loss of control over the mechanisms of power. As
the newspapers became more numerous and
powerful, the Emperor lost his legitimacy in the
eyes of the people. To explore the role of the
newspapers in the political events of the late First
Empire, this dissertation analyzes all available
newspapers published in Rio de Janeiro from 1827
to 1831. Newspapers and their editors were
leading forces in the effort to remove power from
the hands of the ruling elite and place it under the
control of the people. In the process, newspapers
helped change how politics operated in the
constitutional monarchy of Brazil.
From this abstract you now know that although the
dissertation has nothing to do with modern
Brazilian politics, it does cover the role of
newspapers in changing traditional mechanisms of
power. After reading the abstract, you can make an
informed judgment about whether the dissertation
would be worthwhile to read.
Indexing
Besides selection, the other main purpose of the
abstract is for indexing. Most article databases in
the online catalog of the library enable you to
search abstracts. This allows for quick retrieval by
users and limits the extraneous items recalled by a
“full-text” search. However, for an abstract to be
useful in an online retrieval system, it must
incorporate the key terms that a potential
researcher would use to search. For example, if
you search Dissertation Abstracts International
using the keywords “France” “revolution” and
“politics,” the search engine would search through
all the abstracts in the database that included
those three words. Without an abstract, the search
engine would be forced to search titles, which, as
we have seen, may not be fruitful, or else search
the full text. It’s likely that a lot more than 60
dissertations have been written with those three
words somewhere in the body of the entire work.
By incorporating keywords into the abstract, the
author emphasizes the central topics of the work
and gives prospective readers enough information
to make an informed judgment about the
applicability of the work.
when submitting articles to journals, especially
online journals
when applying for research grants
when writing a book proposal
when completing the Ph.D. dissertation or M.A.
thesis
when writing a proposal for a conference paper
when writing a proposal for a book chapter
Most often, the author of the entire work (or
prospective work) writes the abstract. However,
there are professional abstracting services that hire
writers to draft abstracts of other people’s work. In
a work with multiple authors, the first author
usually writes the abstract. Undergraduates are
sometimes asked to draft abstracts of books/
articles for classmates who have not read the
larger work.
There are two types of abstracts: descriptive and
informative . They have different aims, so as a
consequence they have different components and
styles. There is also a third type called critical , but
it is rarely used. If you want to find out more about
writing a critique or a review of a work, see the
UNC Writing Center handout on writing a literature
review. If you are unsure which type of abstract
you should write, ask your instructor (if the
abstract is for a class) or read other abstracts in
your field or in the journal where you are
submitting your article.
Descriptive abstracts
A descriptive abstract indicates the type of
information found in the work. It makes no
judgments about the work, nor does it provide
results or conclusions of the research. It does
incorporate key words found in the text and may
include the purpose, methods, and scope of the
research. Essentially, the descriptive abstract
describes the work being abstracted. Some people
consider it an outline of the work, rather than a
summary. Descriptive abstracts are usually very
short—100 words or less.
Informative abstracts
The majority of abstracts are informative. While
they still do not critique or evaluate a work, they
do more than describe it. A good informative
abstract acts as a surrogate for the work itself.
That is, the writer presents and explains all the
main arguments and the important results and
evidence in the complete article/paper/book. An
informative abstract includes the information that
can be found in a descriptive abstract (purpose,
methods, scope) but also includes the results and
conclusions of the research and the
recommendations of the author. The length varies
according to discipline, but an informative abstract
is rarely more than 10% of the length of the entire
work. In the case of a longer work, it may be much
less.
Here are examples of a descriptive and an
informative abstract of this handout:
“Abstracts,” UNC-CH Writing Center, < http://
writingcenter.unc.edu/handouts/abstracts/ >.
Descriptive abstract:
The two most common abstract types—descriptive
and informative—are described and examples of
each are provided.
Informative abstract:
Abstracts present the essential elements of a
longer work in a short and powerful statement. The
purpose of an abstract is to provide prospective
readers the opportunity to judge the relevance of
the longer work to their projects. Abstracts also
include the key terms found in the longer work and
the purpose and methods of the research. Authors
abstract various longer works, including book
proposals, dissertations, and online journal
articles. There are two main types of abstracts:
descriptive and informative. A descriptive abstract
briefly describes the longer work, while an
informative abstract presents all the main
arguments and important results. This handout
provides examples of various types of abstracts
and instructions on how to construct one.
Which type should I use?
Your best bet in this case is to ask your instructor
or refer to the instructions provided by the
publisher. You can also make a guess based on
the length allowed; i.e., 100-120 words =
descriptive; 250+ words = informative.
The format of your abstract will depend on the
work being abstracted. An abstract of a scientific
research paper will contain elements not found in
an abstract of a literature article, and vice versa.
However, all abstracts share several mandatory
components, and there are also some optional
parts that you can decide to include or not. When
preparing to draft your abstract, keep the following
key process elements in mind:
Reason for writing:
What is the importance of the research? Why would
a reader be interested in the larger work?
Problem:
What problem does this work attempt to solve?
What is the scope of the project? What is the main
argument/thesis/claim?
Methodology:
An abstract of a scientific work may include
specific models or approaches used in the larger
study. Other abstracts may describe the types of
evidence used in the research.
Results:
Again, an abstract of a scientific work may include
specific data that indicates the results of the
project. Other abstracts may discuss the findings
in a more general way.
Implications:
What changes should be implemented as a result
of the findings of the work? How does this work
add to the body of knowledge on the topic?
(This list of elements is adapted with permission
from Philip Koopman, “How to Write an Abstract.” )
All abstracts include:
A full citation of the source, preceding the abstract.
The most important information first.
The same type and style of language found in the
original, including technical language.
Key words and phrases that quickly identify the
content and focus of the work.
Clear, concise, and powerful language.
Abstracts may include:
The thesis of the work, usually in the first
sentence.
Background information that places the work in the
larger body of literature.
The same chronological structure as the original
work.
How not to write an abstract:
Do not refer extensively to other works.
Do not add information not contained in the
original work.
Do not define terms.
If you are abstracting your own writing
When abstracting your own work, it may be
difficult to condense a piece of writing that you
have agonized over for weeks (or months, or even
years) into a 250-word statement. There are some
tricks that you could use to make it easier,
however.
Reverse outlining:
This technique is commonly used when you are
having trouble organizing your own writing. The
process involves writing down the main idea of
each paragraph on a separate piece of paper– see
our short video . For the purposes of writing an
abstract, try grouping the main ideas of each
section of the paper into a single sentence.
Practice grouping ideas using webbing or color
coding .
For a scientific paper, you may have sections titled
Purpose, Methods, Results, and Discussion. Each
one of these sections will be longer than one
paragraph, but each is grouped around a central
idea. Use reverse outlining to discover the central
idea in each section and then distill these ideas
into one statement.
Cut and paste:
To create a first draft of an abstract of your own
work, you can read through the entire paper and
cut and paste sentences that capture key
passages. This technique is useful for social
science research with findings that cannot be
encapsulated by neat numbers or concrete results.
A well-written humanities draft will have a clear
and direct thesis statement and informative topic
sentences for paragraphs or sections. Isolate these
sentences in a separate document and work on
revising them into a unified paragraph.
If you are abstracting someone else’s writing
When abstracting something you have not written,
you cannot summarize key ideas just by cutting
and pasting. Instead, you must determine what a
prospective reader would want to know about the
work. There are a few techniques that will help you
in this process:
Identify key terms:
Search through the entire document for key terms
that identify the purpose, scope, and methods of
the work. Pay close attention to the Introduction
(or Purpose) and the Conclusion (or Discussion).
These sections should contain all the main ideas
and key terms in the paper. When writing the
abstract, be sure to incorporate the key terms.
Highlight key phrases and sentences:
Instead of cutting and pasting the actual words, try
highlighting sentences or phrases that appear to
be central to the work. Then, in a separate
document, rewrite the sentences and phrases in
your own words.
Don’t look back:
After reading the entire work, put it aside and write
a paragraph about the work without referring to it.
In the first draft, you may not remember all the key
terms or the results, but you will remember what
the main point of the work was. Remember not to
include any information you did not get from the
work being abstracted.
No matter what type of abstract you are writing, or
whether you are abstracting your own work or
someone else’s, the most important step in writing
an abstract is to revise early and often. When
revising, delete all extraneous words and
incorporate meaningful and powerful words. The
idea is to be as clear and complete as possible in
the shortest possible amount of space. The Word
Count feature of Microsoft Word can help you keep
track of how long your abstract is and help you hit
your target length.
Kenneth Tait Andrews, “‘Freedom is a constant
struggle': The dynamics and consequences of the
Mississippi Civil Rights Movement, 1960-1984″
Ph.D. State University of New York at Stony Brook,
1997 DAI-A 59/02, p. 620, Aug 1998
This dissertation examines the impacts of social
movements through a multi-layered study of the
Mississippi Civil Rights Movement from its peak in
the early 1960s through the early 1980s. By
examining this historically important case, I clarify
the process by which movements transform social
structures and the constraints movements face
when they try to do so. The time period studied
includes the expansion of voting rights and gains
in black political power, the desegregation of public
schools and the emergence of white-flight
academies, and the rise and fall of federal anti-
poverty programs. I use two major research
strategies: (1) a quantitative analysis of county-
level data and (2) three case studies. Data have
been collected from archives, interviews,
newspapers, and published reports. This
dissertation challenges the argument that
movements are inconsequential. Some view federal
agencies, courts, political parties, or economic
elites as the agents driving institutional change,
but typically these groups acted in response to the
leverage brought to bear by the civil rights
movement. The Mississippi movement attempted
to forge independent structures for sustaining
challenges to local inequities and injustices. By
propelling change in an array of local institutions,
movement infrastructures had an enduring legacy
in Mississippi.
Now let’s break down this abstract into its
component parts to see how the author has
distilled his entire dissertation into a ~200 word
abstract.
What the dissertation does
This dissertation examines the impacts of social
movements through a multi-layered study of the
Mississippi Civil Rights Movement from its peak in
the early 1960s through the early 1980s. By
examining this historically important case, I clarify
the process by which movements transform social
structures and the constraints movements face
when they try to do so.
How the dissertation does it
The time period studied in this dissertation
includes the expansion of voting rights and gains
in black political power, the desegregation of public
schools and the emergence of white-flight
academies, and the rise and fall of federal anti-
poverty programs. I use two major research
strategies: (1) a quantitative analysis of county-
level data and (2) three case studies.
What materials are used
Data have been collected from archives, interviews,
newspapers, and published reports.
Conclusion
This dissertation challenges the argument that
movements are inconsequential. Some view federal
agencies, courts, political parties, or economic
elites as the agents driving institutional change,
but typically these groups acted in response to
movement demands and the leverage brought to
bear by the civil rights movement. The Mississippi
movement attempted to forge independent
structures for sustaining challenges to local
inequities and injustices. By propelling change in
an array of local institutions, movement
infrastructures had an enduring legacy in
Mississippi.
Keywords
social movements
Civil Rights Movement
Mississippi
voting rights
desegregation
Luis Lehner, “Gravitational radiation from black
hole spacetimes” Ph.D. University of Pittsburgh,
1998 DAI-B 59/06, p. 2797, Dec 1998
The problem of detecting gravitational radiation is
receiving considerable attention with the
construction of new detectors in the United States,
Europe, and Japan. The theoretical modeling of the
wave forms that would be produced in particular
systems will expedite the search for and analysis
of detected signals. The characteristic formulation
of GR is implemented to obtain an algorithm
capable of evolving black holes in 3D
asymptotically flat spacetimes. Using
compactification techniques, future null infinity is
included in the evolved region, which enables the
unambiguous calculation of the radiation produced
by some compact source. A module to calculate
the waveforms is constructed and included in the
evolution algorithm. This code is shown to be
second-order convergent and to handle highly
non-linear spacetimes. In particular, we have
shown that the code can handle spacetimes whose
radiation is equivalent to a galaxy converting its
whole mass into gravitational radiation in one
second. We further use the characteristic
formulation to treat the region close to the
singularity in black hole spacetimes. The code
carefully excises a region surrounding the
singularity and accurately evolves generic black
hole spacetimes with apparently unlimited stability.
This science abstract covers much of the same
ground as the humanities one, but it asks slightly
different questions.
Why do this study
The problem of detecting gravitational radiation is
receiving considerable attention with the
construction of new detectors in the United States,
Europe, and Japan. The theoretical modeling of the
wave forms that would be produced in particular
systems will expedite the search and analysis of
the detected signals.
What the study does
The characteristic formulation of GR is
implemented to obtain an algorithm capable of
evolving black holes in 3D asymptotically flat
spacetimes. Using compactification techniques,
future null infinity is included in the evolved region,
which enables the unambiguous calculation of the
radiation produced by some compact source. A
module to calculate the waveforms is constructed
and included in the evolution algorithm.
Results
This code is shown to be second-order
convergent and to handle highly non-linear
spacetimes. In particular, we have shown that the
code can handle spacetimes whose radiation is
equivalent to a galaxy converting its whole mass
into gravitational radiation in one second. We
further use the characteristic formulation to treat
the region close to the singularity in black hole
spacetimes. The code carefully excises a region
surrounding the singularity and accurately evolves
generic black hole spacetimes with apparently
unlimited stability.
Keywords
gravitational radiation (GR)
spacetimes
black holes
We consulted these works while writing the
original version of this handout. This is not a
comprehensive list of resources on the handout’s
topic, and we encourage you to do your own
research to find the latest publications on this
topic. Please do not use this list as a model for
the format of your own reference list, as it may not
match the citation style you are using. For
guidance on formatting citations, please see the
UNC Libraries citation tutorial .
Koopman, Philip. “How to Write an Abstract.”
Lancaster, F.W. Indexing and Abstracting in Theory
and Practice, 3rd edition. (London: Facet, 2003),
95.
Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute. “Abstracts.”
St. Cloud University, LEO, “Writing Abstracts.”
This work is licensed under a
Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-
NoDerivs 2.5 License .
You may reproduce it for non-commercial use if
you use the entire handout (just click print) and
attribute the source: The Writing Center, University
of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
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EFFECT OF MOTIVATION WORKERS' PRODUCTIVITY.

Motivation is concerned with why people do what
they do. It answers such questions as why do
managers or workers got o work and do a good
job. This tries to explain what motivates people to
act the way they do, with primary focus on the
work place. It is the primary task of the manager
to create and maintain an environment in which
employees can work efficiently to realize the
objectives of the organization.
Employees differ not only in their ability to work
but also in their will to do so (motivation). To
motivate is to induce, persuade, stimulate, even
compel, an employee to act in a manner which
fulfills the objectives of an organization. The
motivation of employees depends on the strength
of their motives. Motives are needs, wants, drives,
or impulses within the individual, and these
determine human behaviour.
Motivation then is the process of:
v Arousing behaviour.
v Sustaining behaviour in progress, and
v Channeling behaviour into a specific course of
action.
Thus, motives (needs, desires) induce employees
to act. Motivation, therefore, is the inner state that
energies, channels, and sustains human
behaviour.
Since it has been established that all behaviour
except involving responses are goals directed,
manager can apply motivational theories of
management in their attempt to direct the job
behaviour of employees towards the goal of their
establishment.
1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
Workers leave organization due to the fact that
they are not motivated enough. Some are not
willing to leave because they are enjoying some
benefit in terms of promotion which leads to
increase in salaries and wages, bonuses and
some other incentives.
Organizations must improve the work
performance, productivity, skills and ability of its
employees. The problem is how to motivate
workers to achieving higher productivity.
1.3 RELEVANT RESEARCH QUESTIONS
Some of the research questions are:
1. To what extent does the personnel policy
implemented by your company affect your
productivity?
2. How often does the company embark on staff
training and development?
3. Does your company clearly/respect trade union
position of its employees?
4. Are there differences in the way staff and
workers are t4eated in the organization?
5. Is joint consultation practiced positively, as a
method of obtaining employees views on
problems and proposed charges before final
decisions are taken?
1.4 STATEMENT OF RESEARCH HYPOTHESES
The research hypotheses are:
Hypothesis I:
HO: The more there is effective motivation, the
less the morale of employees.
H1: The more there is effective motivation, the
more the moral of employees.
Hypothesis II:
HO: Adoption of motivational techniques will
automatically decrease the workers productivity.
H1: Adoption of motivational techniques will
automatically increase the workers productivity.
Hypothesis III:
HO: the success of an organization does not
depend on the motivational procedures being
adopted.
H1: The success of an organization depends on
the motivational procedures being adopted.
1.5 PURPOSE/OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY
The study is to ascertain the motivational
activities of Intercontinental bank Plc.
a. To ascertain the application of the motivational
techniques by the organization concerned.
b. To know the problem inhibiting the success of
the employees’ motivation in the organization.
c. To know the response of the employees to
motivational techniques adopted by the
organization.
d. To provide solutions and recommendations
where necessary on the best and effective
motivational techniques used in the organization.
1.6 SCOPE AND LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY
This project covers the aspect of motivation in
persuading, stimulating and compelling an
employee to act in a manner which fulfills the
objectives of the organization.
One cannot but say that data collection is the
most tedious of writing the project.
Another limitation is that the researcher being a
student who has to read other courses as well as
to take normal lectures during the period of the
research may be limited by time given for the
study being too short.
Lastly, the fund constraint in carrying out this
research project, the cost of getting materials and
information as well as their adequacies will also
constitute the limitation of the study.
1.8 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
The significance of this study cannot be over-
emphasized. It will be base don the examination
of the motivation practice in Intercontinental Bank
Plc, and to know the extent to which it is being
carried out, the effects on the workers, the
organization and the country at large. Moreso, to
acquaint the various managers and different
categories of employees to the need to embrace
motivation which will go along way in achieving
higher productivity.
Besides, those students in the field of
administration will find it educative, interesting
and challenging in that, the various activities and
techniques of motivation are revealed and logically
analyzed.
Lastly, this project will be of value to those who
may want to carry out similar research in the
nearest future.
1.9 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF
INTERCONTINENTAL BANK PLC
Intercontinental Bank Plc came into existence in
March, 1989 as a product of the partnership
between some visionary and dynamic Nigerian
businessmen, to provide innovative and
customer-focused products and services that will
satisfy the publics’ growing need for sophisticated
banking services. Since its inception then a s
Nigerian Intercontinental Merchant Bank Limited,
the bank has been providing a wide array of
products and services covering investment
banking, retail and funds management.
Since its debut in t eh commercial banking field,
Intercontinental Bank Plc has pursued an
aggressive branch network expansion
programme. As at March, 2005, the Bank has 63
branches making it sixth largest bank in the
country in terms of network.
A socially responsible organization,
Intercontinental Bank maintains a long-standing
policy of corporate responsibility to the
communities in which it operates, and has made
impact in the areas of public health and
education.
In July, 1991, the Bank converted to a commercial
bank and later obtained a Universal Banking
License to avail many more customers of its
unique products and services as well as tap into
other market opportunities in the Nigerian
economy. Following a resolution of the Board in
October, 2001, the Bank changed to a Public
Limited Liability Company in June, 2002 and
followed it up in July same year with an Initial
Public Offering (IPO). The capitalization of the
Bank was further boosted with N3.58 billion being
proceeds of the IPO and by mid 2004, the Bank’s
shareholders’ funds had grown to N10 billion
before the new minimum capital base of N25
billion was set by the regulators. Consequently,
the Bank returned to the capital market and raised
new funds totaling N22.4 billion thereby growing
its shareholders’ fund to N34.7 billion. The
Bank’s shares are listed on the Nigerian Stock
Exchange (NSE).
1.10 DEFINITION OF TERMS
Motivation: This is the process of arousing
behaviour, sustaining behaviour in progress, and
channeling behaviour into a specific course of
action.
Management: This is the process of getting things
done through people. It involves planning,
organizing, staff, directing, coordinating and
controlling both human and material resources for
the purpose of achieving a set goal.
Responsibility: This is the subordinate’s
obligation to perform a duty which has been
assigned to him.
Leadership: Is a process of using non-coercive
influence to direct and coordinate the activities of
group members towards goals’ accomplishment.
Manager: Is one who performs the functions of
management (planning, organizing, staffing, etc)
and occupiers a formal position in an
organization.
Organization: This has to do with determination
and provision of capital, material, equipment and
personnel that may be required in an enterprise in
order to achieve the set goals.
Organizational Structure: This is the established
pattern of relationships among the components of
the organization.
Organizational Chart: It is a diagram that shows
the arrangement, positions and interrelationship of
various component parts of company.
Employee: This is a person who is paid to work
for an organization or business enterprise.
Behaviour: Is the manner that someone, an
animal, a plant etc do thing sin a particular way.
Department: Any of the division or unit of a
government, business, school or college and so
on.
Employees’ Services: This is the maintaining of
the general welfare of employees on the job and
assisting with problems related to their security
and personal wellbeing e.g. medical services and
insurance protection.
REFERENCES
Ajayi Nelson (1991): Managerial Planning and
Control, Ibadan: U.I. Press Limited.
Akintunde, A.D. (2005): How to Motivate Workers
to Achieve Higher Productivity, Unpublished ND
Business Studies Polytechnic Ibadan, Oyo State.
Donely Gibson (1984): Fundamental of
Management Plan, New York: Texas Business
Company.
Intercontinental Bank Plc (2005): Annual Report
and Accounts.
Kolawole, E.O. (2002): The Effectiveness of Auditor
Report on Management Decision-Making of Some
Selected Companies in the Insurance Industry,
Unpublished B.Sc. Accounting University of Ado,
Ekiti, David Binders & partners, Lagos.
CHAPTER TWO
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Business organization exists to produce goods
and services, which they hope to exchange for
money to maximize profit. In the pursuit of these
defined objectives, the organization procures
resources and processed them into output. Of the
resources acquired, the human factor has been
described as the most significant because if not
properly managed, it can deliberately retard
organizational effectiveness.
Evidence abounds to attest to the fact that all
employees do not exert the same effort towards
organizational goals or in other words, some
employees achieve better results than others.
To achieve results, employees will exhibit the
required job behaviour. The dilemma that
managers face in today’s business is how they
could get employees to exhibit the required job
behaviour in the work place. Since it has been
established that all behaviours except involuntary
responses are goals directed, managers can apply
motivational theories of management in their
attempt to direct the job behaviour of employees
towards the goal of their establishment.
2.2 MODELS AND THEORIES ON MOTIVATION
A number of concepts have been established to
explain the phenomenon of human motivation. It
is useful to classify these concepts into two broad
categories, which are: Content theories and
Process theories.
CONTENT THEORIES
These emphasized reason for motivated behaviour
and or what causes it. They explain behaviour in
terms of specific ‘needs’ or ‘motive’ (the two
terms used interchangeably here). Content
theories help to represent physiological or
psychological deficiencies that an individual feels
some compulsion to eliminate. Some of the major
content theories are:
v Hierarchy of needs - Abraham Maslow
v ERG - Clayton Alderfer
v Two Factor Theory - Fredrick Hertzberg
v Learned Needs Theory - David McClelland.
a. HIERARCHY OF NEEDS
In 1943, Abraham Maslow in a seminar paper
titled, “A Theory of Human Motivation” proposed
that a person’s motivational needs could be
arranged in a hierarchical order. Inherent in this
hierarchical order of needs is that once a given
level of need is satisfied, it no longer serves to
motivate rather the next higher level of need has
to be activated in order to motivate the individual.
Maslow identifies five levels of needs, which are:
Ø Physiological Needs: These are the basic
human needs to sustain life as food, clothing, and
shelter. Until these basic needs are satisfied to the
degree needed, needs for the sufficient operation
of the body, the majority of a person activity will
probably be a t this level and other needs will
provide little or no motivation. But once the
physiological needs have been satisfied, other
levels of needs become important and these
motivate and dominate the behaviour of the
individual.
Ø Safety or Security Needs: These needs are
essential, the desire to be free of the fear of
physical danger and the deprivation of the basic
physiological needs. This is a need for self-
preservation and the concern for the future. If an
individual’s safety or security need is in danger,
other things seem unimportant. Maslow stressed
emotional as well as physical safety. “The whole
organism may become a safety-seeking
organism”. Yet, as it is true of the physiological
needs, once these safety needs are satisfied, they
no longer motivate.
Ø Social or Affiliation Need: In the original version
of Maslow’s theory, he used the word “Love” to
describe the need for attention and affiliation. This
however has been modified by the post Maslow
theorist for the word love may include sexual
relationship, which is a physiological need. Social
need include the need to belong and be accepted
by people, this also means belongingness,
acceptance and friendship.
Ø Esteem Needs: The esteem needs represents
self-esteem and recognition from others. The
satisfaction of these needs produces feelings of
self-confidence, prestige, power and control.
People being to feel that they are useful and have
some effect on their environment.
Ø Self-Actualization: This is the need to maximize
one’s potential whatever, it may be as Maslow
expressed it, “What a man be, he must be”. It is
also the desire to become what one is capable of
becoming. These needs as presented by Maslow
can be arranged in a hierarchy presented below.
Self
Actualization
Esteem
Social Needs
Safety Needs
Physiological Needs
Higher Needs
Lower Needs
Source: Cherington, D.J. Organizational
Behaviour,
2nd Edition, Mass Allyn and Bacon, 1994:136
(Adapted)
b. THE ERG THEORY OF MOTIVATION
The ERG Theory propounded by Clayton Alderfer
is indeed a reaction of Maslow’s Theory. He
argued that there are three core needs which he
classified as “Existence, Relatedness and
Growth” (ERG).
The Existence need has to do with the satisfaction
of our basic material requirements such as food,
water, pay and working conditions, they can be
classified as physiological and safety needs.
The relatedness need is similar to the social role
needs of Maslow’s Theory and this includes social
and interpersonal relationship.
Finally, the Growth needs are intrinsic desire for
personal development or making creative
productive contribution.
Furthermore, Alderfer argued that if the
gratification of a higher-level order need is stifled,
the desire to satisfy a lower level need increase
i.e. frustration, regression and dimension. In other
words, if a person fails to satisfy a higher-level
need, he/she moves back to a lower-level need,
which then acts as a motivating force.
This frustration – regressive – dimension can be
illustrated below.
Frustration of
Growth Needs
Importance of Growth Needs
Satisfaction of Growth Needs
Frustration of
Relatedness Existence
Importance of Relatedness Needs
Satisfaction of Relatedness Needs
Frustration of
Existence Needs
Importance of Existence Needs
Satisfaction of Existence Needs
Source: Gibson Ivancevich and Donnelly 1997,
Organizational Irwin. McGraw Hill, Boston.
c. LEARNED NEEDS THEORY
David McClelland proposed learned needs of
motivation, which according to him is associated
with learning concepts. He identified three needs
that motivate people. these are:
The need for achievements.
The need for affiliation.
The need for power.
The need for achievement: This is the need/desire
to set challenging goals, work to achieve the
goals or the drive to excel in relation to set
standards. The need for achievement is defined
by the following desires, “to accomplish
something difficult: to master, manipulate or
organize physical objects human beings or ideas.
To rival and surpass others. To increase self-
regard by the successful exercise of talent.
The need for affiliation: This is the need to be
liked and accepted by others. People with the
need strive for friendship, prefer cooperative
situations rather than competitive situations and
desire relationship involving a high degree of
mutual understanding. People with a high need
for affiliation prefer to spend more time
maintaining social relationship, joining groups,
etc. individual with a high degree of this need are
not effective managers or leaders because they
will find it difficult to make decisions without
worrying about the feeling of others or being
disliked by others.
The need for power: This is the dislike to have
impact, to be influence and to control others.
They also have the desire to coach, teach or
encourage others to achieve, they love to work
and are concerned with discipline and self-
respect. The need for power has both negative
and positive sides. The negative side is
manifested in a winner’s takes all mentality e.g.
“if I win, you lose”. The positive side is focused
on accomplishing group goals and helping others
obtain the feeling of competence.
PROCESS THEORIES OF MOTIVATION
These are theories that describe and analyzed
how behaviour is energized, directed, sustained
and stopped. While it is true that people work in
order to satisfy their needs, some employees want
to work and do good job and in some case,
employees may exhibit effort beyond the level
where the reward surpassed their need. It is
therefore the duty of management to provide an
environment that facilitates high-level of
performance. Because at this point, what
motivates the employee is not the desire to
satisfy their needs but rather factors in the
environment. This is the basis of the process
theories of motivation.
Three of the process theories of motivation will be
discussed here, these are:
· Goal setting theory.
· Expectancy theory.
· Equity theory.
a. Goal Setting Theory: This theory was
propounded by Edwin Locke (1968)
Directing One’s
Attention
Regulating One’s Effort
Increasing One’s Performance
Encouraging of the Development of Goal
Attainment Strategies of Action Plan
Goals Motivate the Individual
By -------------------
Task Performance
A Theory of Goal Setting and Task Performance.
According to the above model proposed by Locke,
goals setting have four motivational mechanisms:
a. Goals Direct Attention: behaviours are goal-
oriented. Goals that are personally meaningful
tend to focus one’s attention on what is relevant
and important. This is because the perceived
outcome of such behaviour is desired and
cherished by the person exhibiting the behaviour.
b. Goals Regulate Effort: The level of effort
exhibited is proportionate to the difficulty of the
goal. In other words, a goal that appears difficult
to attain will elicit a greater effort if personally
desired. On the other hand, easily attained goals
will require little efforts.
c. Goals Increase Persistence: Persistence here
means the effort expended on a task over an
extended period of time. In the pursuance of an
objective or a goal, difficulties may arise, there is
always the tendency for people to abandon the
pursuit of this goal or objective where they are
not personally involved in the setting of the goal.
On the contrary, when people are involve din the
goal setting process, they are likely t o persist in
their effort towards attaining the goals.
d. Goals Foster Strategies and Action Plans:
Setting of goals or stating performance standard
is the first step towards attaining these goals.
However, it is important to ask the question, “How
are the goals going to be achieved?” When goals
are set, it encourages people going to be
achieved. When goals are set, it encourages
people to develop strategies and action plans that
will enable them achieve the goals.
VROOM’S EXPECTANCY THEORY
In 1964, Victor Vroom proposed an Expectancy
Theory of Motivation in which he defined
motivation as a process governing choice among
alternative form of voluntary activity.
To understand the individual’s choice of voluntary
activities, it is important to first appreciate certain
concepts that are embedded in the expectancy
theory. These concepts are:
Ø Outcome: This is the result of doing a particular
thing. The outcome can be first level or second
level. The first level outcomes are the product of
behaviour associated with doing the job such as
productivity and absenteeism, while the second
level outcomes are the product of the first level
outcome, which include punishment and reward.
Ø Instrumentality: This is the individual
perception or belief that the first level outcome is
associated with the second level outcome.
Instrumentality ranges from – 1 to + 1.
-1 Instrumentality is the perception that
attainment of second level outcome is certain
without the first level outcome and that second
level outcome is impossible with first level
outcome.
+1 instrumentality is the perception that first level
outcome is necessary and sufficient for the
second level outcome to occur.
0 Instrumentality is the perception that there is no
linkage between first level and second level
outcomes.
Ø Valence: This is the preference for outcome.
Among the second level outcomes which of them
do the student for example prefer? Does the
student desire an A,B,C,D,E, or F score in the
examination or a first class, second class upper,
second class lower, third class or pass?
Ø Expectancy: This refers to the individual belief
concerning the likelihood or subjective probability
that a particular behaviour will be followed by a
particular outcome. That is an exhibited behaviour
can elicit a particular outcome. Expectancy ranges
from 0 to + 1.
O Expectancy: This implies that there is no
chance of the occurrence of an outcome after the
behaviour.
+1 Expectancy: This implies that the outcome will
certainly follow the behaviour.
Ø Force (M): This is equated to motivation. The
intent of expectancy theory is to assess the
magnitude and direction of all the forces acting on
the individual. The act associated with the
greatest force is most likely to occur.
Ø Ability (A): This refers to a person’s potential
for doing a job. Ability could be physical or
mental.
Vroom used a mathematical equation to integrate
these concepts into a predictive model of
motivational force. Expectancy theory is therefore
based on the following principles:
V = E (V2 x I) i.e. the valence associated with t
he various first level outcome is a sum of the
multiplication of valences (V2) attached to all
second level outcomes with their respective
instrumentality (I).
(2) M = F (VI x E): Motivation is a multiplicative of
the valences for each first level outcome (VI) and
the perceived expectancy (E) that a given
behaviour w ill be followed by a particular first
level outcome. If expectancy is low, there will be
low motivation.
(3) P = F (M x A): The performance of a job is a
multiplicative function of motivation (forces) and
ability.
EQUITY THEORY OF MOTIVATION
The equity theory of motivation developed by
Stacey Adams holds that individuals who work in
exchange for rewards from organization are
motivated by a desire to be equitably treated at
work. Four importance components are involve
din the equity theory. These are:
v Person: The individual for whom equity or
inequity is perceived.
v Comparison other: Any individual or group used
by person as a referent regarding the ratio of
inputs and outcomes.
v Inputs: These are the individual characteristics
brought to the job by the person. These inputs
are the factors the individual considers when
making equity comparison. They include:
§ Time
§ Education/training.
§ Experience
§ Skills.
§ Creativity.
§ Seriously.
§ Age
§ Personality trait.
§ Effort expended
§ Personal appearance.
v Outcomes: These are what a person receives
from the job or what he/she gets in exchange
with his/her inputs. Factors to be considered
under outcome when making equity comparism
include:
§ Pay/bonuses.
§ Fring benefit.
§ Challenging assignment.
§ Job security.
§ Career advancement.
§ Status symbols.
§ Pleasant/safe working environment.
§ Opportunity for personal growth/development.
FREDERICK HERTZBERG – HYGIENE THEORY
His approach is similar to that of Maslow though
more practical. He has broken motivation into
two. The hygiene/disatisfier and the motivators/
satisfier. The lower level needs are identified as
Hygiene factors and t eh higher level needs are
motivators. Security need and the social needs
while the higher-level needs comprise the ego/
esteem needs and the self-actualization needs.
Hygiene factors are those absence of which cause
dissatisfaction and indifference when present e.g.
salary, working condition, inter-personal relation
supervision company policy and administration.
Motivators are those the absence of which does
not demotivate workers while the presence really
motivate them e.g. Responsibility, career growth
and advancement, achievement recognition and
job enrichment.
HENRY L. GANTT (TASK AND BONUS SYSTEM)
He was a contemporary of Taylor in the
management movement. Gantt was one of the first
to give major attention to human relations in
industry – particularly humanizing management
science, as distinguished from Taylor’s emphasis
on financial incentives. Well, Gantt’s first original
contribution to management science was his
concept of the “Task and Bonus” system of wage
payment, which differed from Taylor’s piece rate
system in that Gantt believed that scientific
management should entail the study of problems
according to the scientific methods, moreso these
tasks or incentives to motivate. According to him,
when these are accomplished, efficiency will be
enhanced.
Another notable contribution of Gantt in this
movement is the fact that he stressed the point
that the training of workers should be the sole
responsibility of management. This is evidently in
practice in majority of organizations today.
ELTON MAYOR
His theories were borne out of the criticism of
Hawthorne research. According to mayor, no
change in any work condition could result solely
from physical change but rather such a change
could only occur as a result of the change in
workers attitude. At the bottom of t eh triangle are
t eh needs of our animalistic nature for self-
preservation for sleep, food including shelter etc.
These are the basic needs once satisfied they
cease to be strong motivators to increase
productivity or action. Thus, as human beings to
feel more materially secured his higher needs for
self-expression will begin to be strong. It follows,
therefore, that, in stable circumstances and with
proper management, the majority of the men can
be self-directed if they become committed to an
objective they value. They will not only accept
responsibility but often will seek it, then to work
will be as natural as to eat or to sleep as in
McGregor’s Theory Y.
In other words, man can be self-motivated. The
task of the manager (as one who accomplishes
his objectives through others) is to create
conditions of work in which and through which
self-motivations can find its release. In situations
where this is difficult to achieve as in dull,
repetitive work, higher pay remains the paramount
importance. Since workers are forced to find
satisfaction outside the work situations.
DOUGLAS McGREGOR (THEORY X & Y)
He believe in group decision-making, which is
constant with individual responsibility. McGregor
is more particularly, for his influential model in
which he contrasts two views of man in the
working situations.
This, he, conveniently termed Theory X and Y.
According to Theory X, he prosecuted that:
The average person has an inherent dislike for
work and w ill try to avoid it if possible.
The average person lacks ambition, dislikes work
responsibility and preferred to be closely directed,
coerced, controlled, and threatened with
punishment to get him to put forth adequate effort
towards the achievement of corporate objectives.
The average person is resistance to change.
The average person is by nature self-centred and
indifference to corporate goals.
On the other hand, theory Y says the above is not
totally true because:
· The average person is not (as a fact) by nature,
passive or resistant to the organization needs.
That the expenditure of physical and mental effort
in work is as natural as play or rest.
· In fact, external control and the threat of
punishment are not the only means for bringing
about efforts towards organizational goals.
Particularly, economic benefits and job security,
as a fact, are just only two of the possible
rewards desired by the average man.
· The average human being leans, under the ideal
conditions, to accept and seek responsibilities –
wants to exercise autonomy and creativity to aid
his/her growth ant eh accomplishment of
corporate objectives.
In view of the above assumptions, McGregor
thinks that the best managers could do is to use
both theories (since they are “legitimate” beliefs
about the nature of man that influence managers)
to adopt one strategy than another situationally –
that is, depending upon a prevailing situation, a
manager who holds the belief, say, of theory X,
could adopt a considerable array of strategies
(either X or Y).
2.3 CURRENT LITERATURE REVIEW
2.3.1 DEFINITION OF MOTIVATION
Several management scholars have given several
definitions of motivation. According to Middle
Most and Hitt (1981), “Motivation is the willful
desire to direct one’s behaviour toward goals. The
three key elements in this definition are willful
desire (Person’s choice), behaviour, and goal-
directed purpose of behaviour.
Wallace and Andrews Zilagy (1994) opine that
“Motivation is a dynamic process that, motivate,
energizes, directs and determines change in
behaviours. It must be understood from the onset
that motivation is not only rewards and
punishment; it includes ideas, expectations and
experience. When it comes to motivation, people
mostly act on perception and not reality”.
Lakin Folajin (2001), spoke at motivation as term
used generally when somebody is stimulated, the
interest of a workers so as to be able to work and
bring or breeds efficiency in his work.
Luthans (1998), Motivation is a process which
starts with a physiological or psychological
deficiency or need that activates behaviour at a
drive that is aimed of a goal or incentive.
Ateman and Snell (1999) see motivation as the
forces that energizes, direct and sustains a
person’s effort.
Robbins (2001) defines motivation as the
processes that account for an individual’s
intensity, direction and persistence of effort
towards attaining a goal.
Joena Agbato (1988) says “motivation is an
important determinant of human behaviour, it sit
ht which movies one towards a goal, thus,
motivation begat performance”.
Translated, it means when one is motivated, it
precipitates a behaviour and this leads to
performance. This means (100%) that one is
positively motivated. It leads to positive
behaviours and thus writes’ agree that motivated
behaviour is goal-directed behaviours, which is
behaviour resulting from internal drives. This
internal devices or (tension) are the roof of
motivation. Hence, it is important for managers to
motivate behaviour so as to reduce these
‘tension’ even though it has been agreed that
these motivation behaviour are “innate”. It should
be stated, that sometime, external force can
dominate and determine behaviour. Yet, at other
times, it is directed towards self-satisfaction. Most
significantly, behaviour is directed to obtain want,
which will satisfy needs.
Ricky Griffin (1984) defined ‘motivation’ as a
cyclical process affecting the inner needs that he
or she wants to satisfy. Although there are certain
common human needs, each person also has his
own particular needs. Our strong needs provide
us with personal goals that satisfy needs.
The intensity of needs and drive varies widely
from one person to another. It is the strongest
drive. The sound manager therefore, tries t o
recognize the strong need especially the
dominating ones in particular individuals. By so
doing, he is able to understand his subordinates
or employees and this will go a long way in
achieving the enterprise objectives.
NEED WANT SATISFACTION CHAIN
NEED WANT TENSION
ACTION SATISFACTION
In conclusion, Gibson (1997) defined motivation
as the concept used to describe the forces acting
on or within an individual to initiate and direct
behaviour.
The definition by Gibson portends two basic
classifications of variables that could motivate
people to work. These are variables acting on the
individuals, these variables are external (process)
therefore can be controlled by other people. The
other set of variables are the variables acting
within the individual (content) these variables are
internal and reflects the state of need of the
individual.
From these definitions, three basic elements can
be seen as inherent in the concept of motivation.
These elements are:
v Intensity: This refers to the degree of effort
exerted by an individual or employee towards
organizational goals. Employees put up different
degrees of effort in achieving organizational goals.
v Direction: This refers to the area in which the
employee directs his effort to, within the
organization. If employee’s efforts are not directed
towards organizational goal then the efforts are
exercised in futility.
v Persistence: This refers to the extent to which
effort or behaviour can be sustained. A t the
commencement of work, a new employee is likely
to exhibit a high degree of effort towards the
organizational goals, but for how long can this
employee sustain this effort?